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Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines with potent antineoplastic and antiviral properties. IFNα has significant clinical activity in the treatment of myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), but the precise mechanisms by which it acts are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that chromatin assembly factor 1 subunit B (CHAF1B), an Unc-51-like kinase 1 (ULK1)-interactive protein in the nuclear compartment of malignant cells, is overexpressed in patients with MPN. Remarkably, targeted silencing of CHAF1B enhances transcription of IFNα-stimulated genes and promotes IFNα-dependent antineoplastic responses in primary MPN progenitor cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that CHAF1B is a promising newly identified therapeutic target in MPN and that CHAF1B inhibition in combination with IFNα therapy might offer a novel strategy for treating patients with MPN. Significance: Our findings raise the potential for clinical development of drugs targeting CHAF1B to enhance IFN antitumor responses in the treatment of patients with MPN and should have important clinical translational implications for the treatment of MPN and possibly in other malignancies.

CHAF1B interacts with ULK1 in the nuclear compartment of JAK2V617F-positive cells and is overexpressed in patients with MPN. A and B, Left, ULK1–protein complexes were co-IP using an anti-ULK1 antibody from cytosolic and nuclear protein fractions isolated from untreated or IFNα-treated (10 or 240 minutes) HEL (A) or SET-2 (B) cells and then resolved by SDS-PAGE. As control, cytosolic and nuclear lysates isolated from cells treated with IFNα for 240 minutes were incubated with normal rabbit IgG (RIgG) antibody. Interaction between ULK1 and CHAF1B was assessed by immunoblotting with anti-ULK1 and anti-CHAF1B antibodies. Note: ǂ, unspecific band. A and B, Right, Equal amounts of cytosolic and nuclear protein lysates isolated from untreated and IFNα-treated HEL (A) and SET-2 (B) cells used for co-IPs were resolved by SDS-PAGE, transferred to PVDF membranes and then immunoblotted with antibodies against ULK1, CHAF1B, α-tubulin (cytosolic marker), and lamin A/C (nuclear marker), as indicated. A and B, Blots are representative of three independent experiments. C, Scatter dot plot of log2CHAF1B mRNA expression in neutrophils from healthy individuals (normal, n = 11) and patients with ET (n = 47), PMF (n = 18), and PV (n = 28). Data were extracted from NCBI GEO: GSE54646 study (21) and analyzed using GraphPad Prim 8. Shown are means ± SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett multiple comparisons test to assess P values between patients with MPN and healthy individuals. *, P < 0.05; ***, P < 0.001; ****, P < 0.0001. Scatter dot plots of log2CHAF1B mRNA expression in neutrophils from patients with ET (green triangles), PMF (purple diamonds), and PV (red squares) carrying wild-type (WT) or mutant (MUT) JAK2 (D), CALR (E), and TET2 (F) genes (JAK2 WT: ET n = 20, PMF n = 10, PV n = 5; JAK2 MUT: ET n = 26, PMF n = 8, PV n = 23; CALR WT: ET n = 27, PMF n = 11, PV n = 26; CALR MUT: ET n = 15, PMF n = 5, PV n = 1; TET2 WT: ET n = 45, PMF n = 17, PV n = 24; TET2 MUT: ET n = 2, PMF n = 1, PV n = 4). Data were extracted from NCBI GEO: GSE54646 study (21) and analyzed using GraphPad Prim 8. Patients for which no information was available for the mutational status for the JAK2, CALR, or TET2 genes were excluded from the analysis. Shown are means ± SEM. Statistical analyses were performed using two-sample two-tailed t test: *, P < 0.05.

Gene-targeted inhibition of CHAF1B increases IFNα-inducible mRNA expression of ISGs in JAK2V617F-positive leukemic cells. qRT-PCR analyses of the indicated genes in control (Ctrl) siRNA or CHAF1B siRNA-transfected JAK2V617F-positive HEL (A) and SET-2 (B) cells, either left untreated or treated with IFNα for 6 hours. GAPDH mRNA expression was used for normalization. Data are expressed as fold change over control siRNA-transfected untreated cells (control) and represent means ± SEM of three independent experiments for each cell line. Statistical analyses were performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey multiple comparisons test. *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ***, P < 0.001. C, ChIP assay was performed in untreated and IFNα-treated (for 6 hours at 5,000 IU/mL) HEL cells at the ISG15 promoter and the IFIT1 promoter for CHAF1B binding using an anti-CHAF1B antibody. IgG antibody was used for each promoter region as negative control. Scatter dot plots show data as percent enrichment relative to input ± SEM for three independent experiments. Statistical analyses were performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey multiple comparisons test. ns, not significant; *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ***, P < 0.001. D, Immunoblot analysis of ULK1 expression in control siRNA (Ctrlsi) and ULK1 siRNA (ULK1si) transfected HEL cells either left untreated or treated with IFNα (for 6 hours at 5,000 IU/mL), as indicated. GAPDH levels were used as loading control. Blots are representative of three independent experiments used to perform ChIP assays shown in E. E, ChIP assay was performed in untreated (UT) and IFNα-treated control (Ctrl) siRNA- and ULK1 siRNA-transfected HEL cells at the ISG15 promoter and the IFIT1 promoter for CHAF1B binding using an anti-CHAF1B antibody. F, HEL cells were pretreated for 1 hour with either DMSO (Ctrl and IFNα groups) or SBI-0206965 (SBI; 10 μmol/L; SBI and SBI+IFNα groups) followed by 6 hours of treatment with either DMSO (Ctrl), SBI (10 μmol/L), IFNα (5,000 IU/mL) or SBI+IFNα, as indicated. ChIP assay was performed in HEL cells at the ISG15 promoter and the IFIT1 promoter for CHAF1B binding using an anti-CHAF1B antibody. E and F, IgG antibody was used for each promoter region as negative control. Scatter dot plots show data as percent enrichment relative to input ± SEM for three independent experiments. Statistical analyses were performed using two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey multiple comparisons test: *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ***, P < 0.001; ****, P < 0.0001. Relevant statistical differences are shown for the binding of CHAF1B to ISG15 and IFIT1 promoter regions between experimental conditions.

Biological processes in which putative ULK1-protein complexes are involved in the cytosol.

Inhibition of CHAF1B increases IFNα-induced anticlonogenic effects in MPN. HEL cells (A) and SET-2 cells (B) were transfected with either control (Ctrl) siRNA or CHAF1B siRNA, and leukemic CFU-L colony formation was assessed in clonogenic assays in the presence or absence of IFNα, as indicated. Data are expressed as percentage of colony formation over control siRNA-transfected untreated cells (control), and the scatter dot plots represent means ± SEM of four independent experiments for each cell line. C, Clonogenic capability of primary malignant erythroid progenitors isolated from PV patients transfected with either control (Ctrl) siRNA or CHAF1B siRNA and either left untreated or treated with IFNα, as indicated. Data are expressed as percentage of colony formation over control siRNA-transfected untreated cells (control) and shown are means ± SEM of six independent experiments using cells from six different patients with PV. Percentages for the same patient are represented by the same symbol and different patients have different symbols. A–C, Statistical analyses were performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey multiple comparisons test. *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ****, P < 0.0001.

Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines with potent antineoplastic and antiviral properties. IFNα has significant clinical activity in the treatment of myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), but the precise mechanisms by which it acts are not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that chromatin assembly factor 1 subunit B (CHAF1B), an Unc-51-like kinase 1 (ULK1)-interactive protein in the nuclear compartment of malignant cells, is overexpressed in patients with MPN. Remarkably, targeted silencing of CHAF1B enhances transcription of IFNα-stimulated genes and promotes IFNα-dependent antineoplastic responses in primary MPN progenitor cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that CHAF1B is a promising newly identified therapeutic target in MPN and that CHAF1B inhibition in combination with IFNα therapy might offer a novel strategy for treating patients with MPN.Significance:Our findings raise the potential for clinical development of drugs targeting CHAF1B to enhance IFN antitumor responses in the treatment of patients with MPN and should have important clinical translational implications for the treatment of MPN and possibly in other malignancies.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive and incurable brain tumor in nearly all instances, whose disease progression is driven in part by the glioma stem cell (GSC) subpopulation. Here, we explored the effects of Schlafen family member 11 (SLFN11) in the molecular, cellular, and tumor biology of GBM. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of SLFN11 inhibited GBM cell proliferation and neurosphere growth and was associated with reduced expression of progenitor/stem cell marker genes, such as NES, SOX2, and CD44. Loss of SLFN11 stimulated expression of NFκB target genes, consistent with a negative regulatory role for SLFN11 on the NFκB pathway. Furthermore, our studies identify p21 as a direct transcriptional target of NFκB2 in GBM whose expression was stimulated by loss of SLFN11. Genetic disruption of SLFN11 blocked GBM growth and significantly extended survival in an orthotopic patient-derived xenograft model. Together, our results identify SLFN11 as a novel component of signaling pathways that contribute to GBM and GSC with implications for future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.Significance:We identify a negative regulatory role for SLFN11 in noncanonical NFκB signaling that results in suppression of the cell-cycle inhibitor p21. We provide evidence that SLFN11 contributes to regulation of stem cell markers in GBM, promoting the malignant phenotype. In addition, SLFN11 targeting triggers p21 expression and antitumor responses. Our studies define a highly novel function for SLFN11 and identify it as a potential therapeutic target for GBM.

Supplementary Table S3 lists proteins that were found to bind SLFN11 before or after irradiation.

Fig. S1: Expression of SLFN family members after SLFN11 knockout. Fig. S2: Reduced 3-D invasion after SLFN11 knockout. Fig. S3: Expression of stem/progenitor markers after SLFN11 add-back. Table S1: Key resources table.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive and incurable brain tumor in nearly all instances, whose disease progression is driven in part by the glioma stem cell (GSC) subpopulation. Here, we explored the effects of Schlafen family member 11 (SLFN11) in the molecular, cellular, and tumor biology of GBM. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of SLFN11 inhibited GBM cell proliferation and neurosphere growth and was associated with reduced expression of progenitor/stem cell marker genes, such as NES, SOX2, and CD44. Loss of SLFN11 stimulated expression of NFκB target genes, consistent with a negative regulatory role for SLFN11 on the NFκB pathway. Furthermore, our studies identify p21 as a direct transcriptional target of NFκB2 in GBM whose expression was stimulated by loss of SLFN11. Genetic disruption of SLFN11 blocked GBM growth and significantly extended survival in an orthotopic patient-derived xenograft model. Together, our results identify SLFN11 as a novel component of signaling pathways that contribute to GBM and GSC with implications for future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Significance: We identify a negative regulatory role for SLFN11 in noncanonical NFκB signaling that results in suppression of the cell-cycle inhibitor p21. We provide evidence that SLFN11 contributes to regulation of stem cell markers in GBM, promoting the malignant phenotype. In addition, SLFN11 targeting triggers p21 expression and antitumor responses. Our studies define a highly novel function for SLFN11 and identify it as a potential therapeutic target for GBM.

Tamoxifen (TAM) is the first-line endocrine therapy for estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer (BC). However, acquired resistance occurs in ∼50% cases. Meanwhile, although the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway is a viable target for treatment of endocrine therapy-refractory patients, complex signaling feedback loops exist, which can counter the effectiveness of inhibitors of this pathway. Here, we analyzed signaling pathways and metabolism in ER+ MCF7 BC cell line and their TAM-resistant derivatives that are co-resistant to endoxifen using immunoblotting, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and the Agilent Seahorse XF Analyzer. We found that activation of AKT and the energy-sensing kinase AMPK was increased in TAM and endoxifen-resistant cells. Furthermore, ERRα/PGC-1β and their target genes MCAD and CPT-1 were increased and regulated by AMPK, which coincided with increased fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and autophagy in TAM-resistant cells. Inhibition of AKT feedback-activates AMPK and ERRα/PGC-1β-MCAD/CPT-1 with a consequent increase in FAO and autophagy that counters the therapeutic effect of endoxifen and AKT inhibitors. Therefore, our results indicate increased activation of AKT and AMPK with metabolic reprogramming and increased autophagy in TAM-resistant cells. Simultaneous inhibition of AKT and FAO/autophagy is necessary to fully sensitize resistant cells to endoxifen.

The novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been shown to hijack angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) for entry into mammalian cells. A short isoform of ACE2, termed deltaACE2 (dACE2), has recently been identified. In contrast to ACE2, the short dACE2 isoform lacks the ability to bind the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2. Several studies have proposed that expression of ACE2 and/or dACE2 is induced by interferons (IFNs). Here, we report that drug-targeted inhibition or silencing of Unc51-like kinase 1 (ULK1) results in repression of type I IFN-induced expression of the dACE2 isoform. Notably, dACE2 is expressed in various squamous tumors. In efforts to identify pharmacological agents that target this pathway, we found that fisetin, a natural flavonoid, is an ULK1 inhibitor that decreases type I IFN-induced dACE2 expression. Taken together, our results establish a requirement for ULK1 in the regulation of type I IFN-induced transcription of dACE2 and raise the possibility of clinical translational applications of fisetin as a novel ULK1 inhibitor.

Wild-type p53 is a stress-responsive transcription factor and potent tumor suppressor. P53 activates or represses genes involved in cell cycle progression or apoptosis in order to arrest the cell cycle or induce cell death. Transcription repression by p53 is indirect and requires repressive members of the RB-family (RB1, RBL1, RBL2) and formation of repressor complexes of RB1-E2F and RBL1/RBL2-DREAM. Many aurora kinase A/B (AURKA/B) pathway genes are repressed in a p53-DREAM-dependent manner. We found heightened expression of RBL2 and reduced expression of AURKA/B pathway genes is associated with improved outcomes in p53 wild-type but not p53 mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Knockdown of p53, RBL2, or the DREAM component LIN37 increased AURKA/B pathway gene expression and reduced paclitaxel and radiation toxicity in NSCLC cells. In contrast, pharmacologic inhibition of AURKA/B or knockdown of AURKA/B pathway components increased paclitaxel and IR sensitivity. The results support a model in which p53-RBL2-DREAM-mediated repression of the AURKA/B pathway contributes to tumor suppression, improved tumor therapy responses, and better outcomes in p53 wild-type NSCLCs.

Platinum-based drugs such as cisplatin (CP) are the first-line chemotherapy for non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Unfortunately, NSCLC has a low response rate to CP and acquired resistance always occurs. Histone methylation regulates chromatin structure and is implicated in DNA repair. We hypothesize histone methylation regulators are involved in CP resistance. We therefore screened gene expression of known histone methyltransferases and demethylases in three NSCLC cell lines with or without acquired resistance to CP. JMJD2s are a family of histone demethylases that remove tri-methyl groups from H3K9 and H3K36. We found expression of several JMJD2 family genes upregulated in CP-resistant cells, with JMJD2B expression being upregulated in all three CP-resistant NSCLC cell lines. Further analysis showed increased JMJD2 protein expression coincided with decreased H3K9me3 and H3K36me3. Chemical inhibitors of JMJD2-family proteins increased H3K9me3 and H3K36me3 levels and sensitized resistant cells to CP. Mechanistic studies showed that JMJD2 inhibition decreased chromatin association of ATR and Chk1 and inhibited the ATR-Chk1 replication checkpoint. Our results reveal that JMJD2 demethylases are potential therapeutic targets to overcome CP resistance in NSCLC.

Many factors complicate therapeutic strategies for glioblastoma (GBM), including the existence of the blood brain barrier and a heterogenous population of difficult to treat glioma stem cells. Innovative strategies targeting novel pathways alone or in combination are needed for sustainable therapeutic improvements. The MAPK pathway has been implicated in many cancers. MAPK interacting kinases (MNK1 and MNK2) are downstream of MAPKs and phosphorylate the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E), a protein involved in translation of oncogenic mRNAs. We have previously established pharmacological MNK inhibition as a promising strategy for GBM. However, most currently available MNK inhibitors lack specificity and exhibit off-target effects. We developed novel selective MNK inhibitors that show MNK inhibition specificity in GBM established cell lines as well as patient-derived cell lines propagated under stem cell permissive conditions as 3-D neurospheres. MNK inhibitors reduced cell viability and neurosphere growth. Our previous work with MNK inhibitors showed involvement in negative feedback loops activated with treatment of other pharmacological agents, so we conducted a high-throughput screening to identify potential targets for combination treatment. One of the top hits was a DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitor that enhanced MNK inhibitor antineoplastic effects in GBM cells. Dual MNK and DNMT inhibition synergistically reduced neurosphere growth in 3-D glioma stem-like cells. The combination promoted apoptosis in the mesenchymal glioma stem-like cells as shown through flow cytometry and increased expression of cleaved PARP, cleaved caspase 3, and Bax. Also, DNMT targeting enhanced the viability reduction effects of siRNA mediated MNK1 knockdown in GBM cells. This combination of our novel MNK inhibitor with DNMT inhibition elicited antineoplastic benefits in both 2-D cultures and 3-D glioma stem cell-like populations, demonstrating a potential novel therapeutic strategy in GBM. Citation Format: Candice Mazewski, Frank Eckerdt, Aneta Baran, Mariafausta Fischietti, Purav P. Vagadia, Ricardo E. Perez, Charles D. James, Gary E. Schiltz, Leonidas C. Platanias. DNMT targeting enhances vulnerability of glioblastoma cells to MNK inhibition [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 3281.

Activated p53 can promote apoptosis or cell cycle arrest. Differences in energy metabolism can influence cell fate in response to activated p53. Nutlin-3a is a preclinical drug and small molecule activator of p53. Alpha-ketoglutarate (αKG) levels were reduced in cells sensitive to Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis and increased in cells resistant to this apoptosis. Add-back of a cell-permeable αKG analog (DMKG) rescued cells from apoptosis in response to Nutlin-3a. OGDH is a component of the αKGDH complex that converts αKG to succinate. OGDH knockdown increased endogenous αKG levels and also rescued cells from Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis. We previously showed reduced autophagy and ATG gene expression contributes to Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis. DMKG and OGDH knockdown restored autophagy and ATG gene expression in Nutlin-3a-treated cells. These studies indicate αKG levels, regulated by p53 and OGDH, determine autophagy and apoptosis in response to Nutlin-3a.

Autophagy promotes cancer cell survival in response to p53 activation by the anticancer agent Nutlin-3a (Nutlin). We reported previously that Nutlin kills MDM2-amplified cancer cells and that this killing is associated with an inhibition of glucose metabolism, reduced α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) levels, and reduced autophagy. In the current report, using SJSA1, U2OS, A549, and MHM cells, we found that Nutlin alters histone methylation in an MDM2 proto-oncogene–dependent manner and that this, in turn, regulates autophagy-related gene (ATG) expression and cell death. In MDM2-amplified cells, Nutlin increased histone (H) 3 lysine (K) 9 and K36 trimethylation (me3) coincident with reduced autophagy and increased apoptosis. Blocking histone methylation restored autophagy and rescued these cells from Nutlin-induced killing. In MDM2-nonamplified cells, H3K9me3 and H3K36me3 levels were either reduced or not changed by the Nutlin treatment, and this coincided with increased autophagy and cell survival. Blocking histone demethylation reduced autophagy and sensitized these cells to Nutlin-induced killing. Further experiments suggested that MDM2 amplification increases histone methylation in Nutlin-treated cells by causing depletion of the histone demethylase Jumonji domain-containing protein 2B (JMJD2B). Finally, JMJD2B knockdown or inhibition increased H3K9/K36me3 levels, decreased ATG gene expression and autophagy, and sensitized MDM2-nonamplified cells to apoptosis. Together, these results support a model in which MDM2- and JMJD2B-regulated histone methylation levels modulate ATG gene expression, autophagy, and cell fate in response to the MDM2 antagonist Nutlin-3a.

// Batzaya Davaadelger 1 , Lei Duan 1 , Ricardo E. Perez 1 , Steven Gitelis 2 , Carl G. Maki 1 1 Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA 2 Section of Orthopedic Oncology, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Rush University, Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA Correspondence to: Carl G. Maki, e-mail: Carl_Maki@rush.edu Keywords: p53, p27, IGF-1R/AKT/mTORC1, cisplatin Received: January 08, 2016 Accepted: March 18, 2016 Published: March 30, 2016 ABSTRACT The insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) signaling pathway is aberrantly activated in multiple cancers and can promote proliferation and chemotherapy resistance. Multiple IGF-1R inhibitors have been developed as potential therapeutics. However, these inhibitors have failed to increase patient survival when given alone or in combination with chemotherapy agents. The reason(s) for the disappointing clinical effect of these inhibitors is not fully understood. Cisplatin (CP) activated the IGF-1R/AKT/mTORC1 pathway and stabilized p53 in osteosarcoma (OS) cells. p53 knockdown reduced IGF-1R/AKT/mTORC1 activation by CP, and IGF-1R inhibition reduced the accumulation of p53. These data demonstrate positive crosstalk between p53 and the IGF-1R/AKT/mTORC1 pathway in response to CP. Further studies showed the effect of IGF-1R inhibition on CP response is dependent on p53 status. In p53 wild-type cells treated with CP, IGF-1R inhibition increased p53s apoptotic function but reduced p53-dependent senescence, and had no effect on long term survival. In contrast, in p53-null/knockdown cells, IGF-1R inhibition reduced apoptosis in response to CP and increased long term survival. These effects were due to p27 since IGF-1R inhibition stabilized p27 in CP-treated cells, and p27 depletion restored apoptosis and reduced long term survival. Together, the results demonstrate 1) p53 expression determines the effect of IGF-1R inhibition on cancer cell CP response, and 2) crosstalk between the IGF-1R/AKT/mTORC1 pathway and p53 and p27 can reduce cancer cell responsiveness to chemotherapy and may ultimately limit the effectiveness of IGF-1R pathway inhibitors in the clinic.

MDM2 antagonists stabilize and activate wild-type p53, and histone methyltransferase (HMT) inhibitors reduce methylation on histone lysines and arginines. Both MDM2 antagonists and HMT inhibitors are being developed as cancer therapeutics. Wild-type p53 expressing HCT116 colon cancer cells were resistant to apoptosis in response to the MDM2 antagonist Nutlin-3a. However, co-treatment with the HMT inhibitor DZNep sensitized the cells to Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis. This sensitization resulted from reduced activity of the Bcl-2 gene promoter and a reduction in Bcl-2 mRNA and protein. Surprisingly, DZNep reduced Bcl-2 expression in other colon cancer cell lines (RKO, SW48, and LoVo) but failed to sensitize them to Nutlin-3a. We found these cell lines express elevated levels of Bcl-2 or other Bcl-2-family proteins, including Bcl-xL, Mcl-1, and Bcl-w. Knockdown of Mcl-1 and/or treatment with specific or pan Bcl-2-family inhibitors (BH3 mimetics) sensitized RKO, SW48, and LoVo cells to apoptosis by Nutlin-3a. The results demonstrate 1) DZNep represses the Bcl-2 gene promoter and affects apoptosis sensitivity by reducing Bcl-2 protein expression, and 2) elevated expression of pro-survival Bcl-2 family members protects colon cancer cells from Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis. Targeting Bcl-2 proteins via DZNep or BH3 mimetics could increase the therapeutic potential of MDM2-antagonists like Nutlin-3a in colon cancer.

The onset and degree of injury occurring in animals that develop hyperoxic acute lung injury (HALI) is dependent on age at exposure, suggesting that developmentally regulated pathways/factors must underlie initiation of the epithelial injury and subsequent repair. Type II TGFβ receptor interacting protein‐1 (TRIP‐1) is a negative regulator of TGFβ signaling, which we have previously shown is a developmentally regulated protein with modulatory effects on epithelial‐fibroblastic signaling. The aim of this study was to assess if type II alveolar epithelial cells overexpressing TRIP‐1 are protected against hyperoxia‐induced epithelial injury, and in turn HALI. Rat lung epithelial cells (RLE) overexpressing TRIP‐1 or LacZ were exposed to 85% oxygen for 4 days. A surfactant protein C (SPC)‐driven TRIP‐1 overexpression mouse (TRIP‐1 AECTg+ ) was generated and exposed to hyperoxia (>95% for 4 days) at 4 weeks of age to assess the effects TRIP‐1 overexpression has on HALI. RLE overexpressing TRIP‐1 resisted hyperoxia‐induced apoptosis. Mice overexpressing TRIP‐1 in their lung type II alveolar epithelial cells (TRIP‐1 AECTg+ ) showed normal lung development, increased phospho‐AKT level and E‐cadherin, along with resistance to HALI, as evidence by less TGFβ activation, apoptosis, alveolar macrophage influx, KC expression. Taken together, these findings point to existence of a TRIP‐1 mediated molecular pathway affording protection against epithelial/acute lung injury.

The tumor suppressor p53 regulates downstream targets that determine cell fate. Canonical p53 functions include inducing apoptosis, growth arrest, and senescence. Non-canonical p53 functions include its ability to promote or inhibit autophagy and its ability to regulate metabolism. The extent to which autophagy and/or metabolic regulation determines cell fate by p53 is unclear. To address this, we compared cells resistant or sensitive to apoptosis by the p53 activator Nutlin-3a. In resistant cells, glycolysis was maintained upon Nutlin-3a treatment, and activated p53 promoted prosurvival autophagy. In contrast, in apoptosis sensitive cells activated p53 increased superoxide levels and inhibited glycolysis through repression of glycolytic pathway genes. Glycolysis inhibition and increased superoxide inhibited autophagy by repressing ATG genes essential for autophagic vesicle maturation. Inhibiting glycolysis increased superoxide and blocked autophagy in apoptosis-resistant cells, causing p62-dependent caspase-8 activation. Finally, treatment with 2-DG or the autophagy inhibitors chloroquine or bafilomycin A1 sensitized resistant cells to Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis. Together, these findings reveal novel links between glycolysis and autophagy that determine apoptosis-sensitivity in response to p53. Specifically, the findings indicate 1) that glycolysis plays an essential role in autophagy by limiting superoxide levels and maintaining expression of ATG genes required for autophagic vesicle maturation, 2) that p53 can promote or inhibit autophagy depending on the status of glycolysis, and 3) that inhibiting protective autophagy can expand the breadth of cells susceptible to Nutlin-3a induced apoptosis.

The effectiveness of DNA damaging chemotherapy drugs can be limited by activation of survival signaling pathways and cell cycle checkpoints that allow DNA repair. Targeting survival pathways and inhibiting cell cycle checkpoints may increase chemotherapy-induced cancer cell killing. AKT and Chk1 are survival and cell cycle checkpoint kinases, respectively, that can be activated by DNA damage. Cisplatin (CP) is a standard chemotherapy agent for osteosarcoma (OS). CP induced apoptosis to varying extents and activated AKT and Chk1 in multiple p53 wild-type and p53-null OS cell lines. A Chk1 inhibitor increased CP-induced apoptosis in all OS cell lines regardless of p53 status. In contrast, an AKT inhibitor increased CP-induced apoptosis only in p53 wild-type OS cells, but not p53 nulll cells. The increased apoptosis in p53 wild-type cells was coincident with decreased p53 protein levels, but increased expression of p53-responsive apoptotic genes Noxa and PUMA. Further studies revealed the inability of AKT inhibitor to CP-sensitize p53-null OS cells resulted from 2 things: 1) AKT inhibition stabilized/maintained p27 levels in CP-treated cells, which then mediated a protective G1-phase cell cycle arrest, 2) AKT inhibition increased the levels of activated Chk1. Finally, schedule dependent inhibition of AKT and Chk1 evaded the protective G1 arrest mediated by p27 and maximized CP-induced OS cell killing. These data demonstrate AKT and Chk1 activation promote survival in CP-treated OS cells, and that strategic, scheduled targeting of AKT and Chk1 can maximize OS cell killing by CP.

Nutlin-3a is a MDM2 antagonist and preclinical drug that activates p53. Cells with MDM2 gene amplification are especially prone to Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis, though the basis for this is unclear. Glucose metabolism can inhibit apoptosis in response to Nutlin-3a through mechanisms that are incompletely understood. Glucose metabolism through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) produces NADPH that can protect cells from potentially lethal reactive oxygen species (ROS). We compared apoptosis and glucose metabolism in cancer cells with and without MDM2 gene amplification treated with Nutlin-3a. Apoptosis in MDM2-amplified cells was associated with a reduction in glycolysis and the PPP, reduced NADPH, increased ROS, and depletion of the transcription factor SP1, which normally promotes PPP gene expression. In contrast, glycolysis and the PPP were maintained or increased in MDM2 non-amplified cells treated with Nutlin-3a. This was dependent on p53-mediated AKT activation and was associated with maintenance of SP1 and continued expression of PPP genes. Knockdown or inhibition of AKT, SP1, or the PPP sensitized MDM2-non-amplified cells to apoptosis. The data indicate that p53 promotes AKT and SP1-dependent activation of the PPP that protects cells from Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis. These findings provide insight into how glucose metabolism reduces Nutlin-3a-induced apoptosis, and also provide a mechanism for the heightened sensitivity of MDM2-amplified cells to apoptosis in response to Nutlin-3a.

The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB/AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway conveys signals from receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) to regulate cell metabolism, proliferation, survival, and motility. Previously we found that prolylcarboxypeptidase (PRCP) regulate proliferation and survival in breast cancer cells. In this study, we found that PRCP and the related family member prolylendopeptidase (PREP) are essential for proliferation and survival of pancreatic cancer cells. Depletion/inhibition of PRCP and PREP-induced serine phosphorylation and degradation of IRS-1, leading to inactivation of the cellular PI3K and AKT. Notably, depletion/inhibition of PRCP/PREP destabilized IRS-1 in the cells treated with rapamycin, blocking the feedback activation PI3K/AKT. Consequently, inhibition of PRCP/PREP enhanced rapamycin-induced cytotoxicity. Thus, we have identified PRCP and PREP as a stabilizer of IRS-1 which is critical for PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling in pancreatic cancer cells.

p53 gene mutations are among the most common alterations in cancer. In most cases, missense mutations in one TP53 allele are followed by loss-of-heterozygosity (LOH), so tumors express only mutant p53. TP53 mutations and LOH have been linked, in many cases, with poor therapy response and worse outcome. Despite this, remarkably little is known about how TP53 point mutations are acquired, how LOH occurs, or the cells involved. Nutlin-3a occupies the p53-binding site in MDM2 and blocks p53-MDM2 interaction, resulting in the stabilization and activation of p53 and subsequent growth arrest or apoptosis. We leveraged the powerful growth inhibitory activity of Nutlin-3a to select p53-mutated cells and examined how TP53 mutations arise and how the remaining wild-type allele is lost or inactivated. Mismatch repair (MMR)-deficient colorectal cancer cells formed heterozygote (p53 wild-type/mutant) colonies when cultured in low doses of Nutlin-3a, whereas MMR-corrected counterparts did not. Placing these heterozygotes in higher Nutlin-3a doses selected clones in which the remaining wild-type TP53 was silenced. Our data suggest silencing occurred through a novel mechanism that does not involve DNA methylation, histone methylation, or histone deacetylation. These data indicate MMR deficiency in colorectal cancer can give rise to initiating TP53 mutations and that TP53 silencing occurs via a copy-neutral mechanism. Moreover, the data highlight the use of MDM2 antagonists as tools to study mechanisms of TP53 mutation acquisition and wild-type allele loss or silencing in cells with defined genetic backgrounds.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process by which epithelial cells undergo conversion to a mesenchymal phenotype contributing to wound repair by fibrosis and to cancer cell acquisition of invasive ability. Recently, we showed that type II TGF-β receptor interacting protein-1 (TRIP-1), a protein identified as a phosphorylation target of the TGF-β type II receptor kinase and as a functional component of eukaryotic translation initiator factor 3 (eiF3) multiprotein complex, is a novel modulator of fibroblast collagen contraction, an important step in wound repair stimulated by TGF-β1 action. TGF-β1 drives EMT, but it is not known whether TRIP-1 expression influences EMT induction. To investigate whether TRIP-1 plays a role in EMT induction we studied the effect of downregulating TRIP-1 expression in the well-characterized A549 model of TGF-β1 induction of EMT. Here we report that short hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated depletion of TRIP-1 gene transcripts in A549 cells promotes EMT as assessed by changes in phenotypic markers, morphology, and migrative ability. Knockdown of TRIP-1 dramatically increased A549 responsiveness to TGF-β1 induction of EMT. Mechanistically, a pathway involving increased TGF-β type II receptor level, enhanced Smad3 phosphorylation, and the transcription factor SLUG is implicated. Altogether, the findings point to regulation of endogenous TRIP-1 protein expression as a potential strategy to target EMT, and related invasive behavior, in cancer cells.

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) accounts for 15-20% of all breast cancer cases. Currently, the only effective treatment for TNBC is chemotherapy agents. A well-established characteristic of TNBC is the ability of these cells to become metastatic following chemotherapy treatment resulting in increased mortality. New forms of treatment which target TNBC are urgently needed. Insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) has been extensively studied in the regulation of the insulin and insulin-like growth factor receptor signaling cascades, specifically in the induction of the intracellular PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 and MAP kinase pathways. The roles of such pathways in cancer are currently being studied and considered for therapeutic targeting. We previously showed that the stability and levels of IRS1 are maintained by prolylcarboxypeptidase proteins PRCP/PREP in pancreatic cancer cells. Our hypothesis is that PRCP/PREP are potential therapeutic targets in TNBC. Specifically, we hypothesize that blocking the expression or reducing the activity of PRCP/PREP will inhibit the PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 pathway in TNBC cells and, in turn, reduce growth and survival in these cells. To test this, we will be treating a number of TNBC cell lines with a PRCP/PREP inhibitor and determining IRS1/2 protein levels, AKT/mTORC1 signaling, and growth and survival. TNBC cells were screened for sensitivity against the PRCP/PREP inhibitor, Y-ox. Sensitive cells treated with Y-ox showed earlier reduction in the IRS1/AKT/mTORC1 signaling, as well as earlier loss of cell viability compared to those cells with relative resistance to Y-ox. Similarly, cells treated with the IRS1/2 inhibitor NT-157 and the AKT inhibitor, MK-2206 showed loss of cell viability similarly seen with the PRCP/PREP inhibitor, Y-ox. In conclusion, the results shown in this study show a possible new therapeutic target against triple negative breast cancer in the inhibition of PRCP/PREP leading to loss of cell proliferation and viability. Citation Format: Ricardo E. Perez, Lei Duan, Carl G. Maki. Determining the role of PRCP/PREP in triple negative breast cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2018; 2018 Apr 14-18; Chicago, IL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2018;78(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 1897.

Tumor-derived mutant forms of p53 compromise its DNA binding, transcriptional, and growth regulatory activity in a manner that is dependent upon the cell-type and the type of mutation. Given the high frequency of p53 mutations in human tumors, reactivation of the p53 pathway has been widely proposed as beneficial for cancer therapy. In support of this possibility p53 mutants possess a certain degree of conformational flexibility that allows for re-induction of function by a number of structurally different artificial compounds or by short peptides. This raises the question of whether physiological pathways for p53 mutant reactivation also exist and can be exploited therapeutically. The activity of wild-type p53 is modulated by various acetyl-transferases and deacetylases, but whether acetylation influences signaling by p53 mutant is still unknown. Here, we show that the PCAF acetyl-transferase is down-regulated in tumors harboring p53 mutants, where its re-expression leads to p53 acetylation and to cell death. Furthermore, acetylation restores the DNA-binding ability of p53 mutants in vitro and expression of PCAF, or treatment with deacetylase inhibitors, promotes their binding to p53-regulated promoters and transcriptional activity in vivo. These data suggest that PCAF-mediated acetylation rescues activity of at least a set of p53 mutations. Therefore, we propose that dis-regulation of PCAF activity is a pre-requisite for p53 mutant loss of function and for the oncogenic potential acquired by neoplastic cells expressing these proteins. Our findings offer a new rationale for therapeutic targeting of PCAF activity in tumors harboring oncogenic versions of p53.

The ubiquitin-like molecule, SUMO-1, a small protein essential for a variety of biological processes, is covalently conjugated to many intracellular proteins, especially to regulatory components of the transcriptional machinery, such as histones and transcription factors. Sumoylation provides either a stimulatory or an inhibitory signal for proliferation and for transcription, but the molecular mechanisms by which SUMO-1 achieves such versatility of effects are incompletely defined. The tumor suppressor and transcription regulator p53 is a relevant SUMO-1 target. Particularly, the C-terminal tail of p53 undergoes both sumoylation and acetylation. While the effects of sumoylation are still controversial, acetylation modifies p53 interaction with chromatin embedded promoters, and enforces p53 apoptotic activity. In this study, we show that the N-terminal region of SUMO-1 might functionally mimic this activity of the p53 C-terminal tail. We found that this SUMO-1 domain possesses similarity with the C-terminal acetylable p53 tail as well as with acetylable domains of other transcription factors. SUMO-1 is, indeed, acetylated when conjugated to its substrates and to p53. In the acetylable form SUMO-1 tunes the p53 response by modifying p53 transcriptional program, by promoting binding onto selected promoters and by favoring apoptosis. By contrast, when non-acetylable, SUMO-1 enforces cell-cycle arrest and p53 binding to a different sets of genes. These data demonstrate for the first time that SUMO-1, a post-translational modification is, in turn, modified by acetylation. Further, they imply that the pleiotropy of effects by which SUMO-1 influences various cellular outcomes and the activity of p53 depends upon its acetylation state.

Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is a separation technique with a relatively low resolving power, compared to those usually utilized in proteomics. Therefore, it is often overlooked in experimental protocols, when the main goal is resolving complex biological mixtures. In this report, we introduce innovative multidimensional schemes for proteomics analysis, in which SEC plays a practical role. Liquid isoelectric focusing (IEF) was combined with SEC, and experimental results were compared to those obtained by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE), well-established techniques relying upon similar criteria for separation. Additional experiments were performed to evaluate the practical contribution of SEC in multidimensional chromatographic separations. Specifically, we evaluated the combination of SEC and ion exchange chromatography in an analytical scheme for the mass spectrometric analysis of protein-extracts obtained from bacterial cultures grown in stable isotope enriched media. Experimental conditions and practical considerations are discussed.

We have shown previously that T1α/podoplanin is required for capillary tube formation by human lung microvascular lymphatic endothelial cells (HMVEC-LLy) and that cells with decreased podoplanin expression fail to properly activate the small GTPase RhoA shortly after the beginning of the lymphangiogenic process. The objective of this study was to determine whether podoplanin regulates HMVEC-LLy migration and whether this regulation is via modulation of small GTPase activation. In analysis of scratch wound assays, we found that small interfering RNA (siRNA) depletion of podoplanin expression in HMVEC-LLy inhibits VEGF-induced microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) and Golgi polarization and causes a dramatic reduction in directional migration compared with control siRNA-transfected cells. In addition, a striking redistribution of cortical actin to fiber networks across the cell body is observed in these cells, and, remarkably, it returns to control levels if the cells are cotransfected with a dominant-negative mutant of Cdc42. Moreover, cotransfection of a dominant-negative construct of Cdc42 into podoplanin knockdown HMVEC-LLy completely abrogated the effect of podoplanin deficiency, rescuing MTOC and Golgi polarization and cell migration to control level. Importantly, expression of constitutively active Cdc42 construct, like podoplanin knockdown, decreased RhoA-GTP level in HMVEC-LLy, demonstrating cross talk between both GTPases. Taken together, the results indicate that polarized migration of lymphatic endothelial cells in response to VEGF is mediated via a pathway of podoplanin regulation of small GTPase activities, in particular Cdc42.

Supplemental oxygen therapy (hyperoxia) in preterm babies with respiratory stress is associated with lung injury and the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis plays critical roles in maintaining cellular functions such as protein synthesis, folding, and secretion. Interruption of ER homeostasis causes ER stress and triggers the unfolded protein response, which can lead to apoptosis in persistently stressed cells. ERp57 is an ER protein and is associated with calreticulin and calnexin in protein glycosylation. In this study, we found hyperoxia downregulated ERp57 in neonatal rat lungs and cultured human endothelial cells. Transient transfection of ERp57 small interfering RNA significantly knocked down ERp57 expression and reduced hyperoxia- or tunicamycin-induced apoptosis in human endothelial cells. Apoptosis was decreased from 26.8 to 9.9% in hyperoxia-exposed cells and from 37.8 to 5.0% in tunicamycin-treated cells. The activation of caspase-3 induced by hyperoxia or tunicamycin was diminished and immunoglobulin heavy chain-binding protein/glucose-regulated protein 78-kDa (BiP/GRP78) induction was increased in ERp57 knockdown cells. Overexpression of ERp57 exacerbated hyperoxia- or tunicamycin-induced apoptosis in human endothelial cells. Apoptosis was increased from 10.1 to 14.3% in hyperoxia-exposed cells and from 14.0 to 21.2% in tunicamycin-treated cells. Overexpression of ERp57 also augmented tunicamycin-induced caspase-3 activation and reduced BiP/GRP78 induction. Our results demonstrate that ERp57 can regulate apoptosis in human endothelial cells. It appears that knockdown of ERp57 confers cellular protection against hyperoxia- or tunicamycin-induced apoptosis by inhibition of caspase-3 activation and stimulation of BiP/GRP78 induction.

Acute lung injury involving extremely immature lungs often heals without excessive fibrosis unlike later in gestation and in adults. Several factors may be involved, but fibroblast contraction of collagen has been linked to the level of wound fibrosis. To assess whether human lung fibroblasts of fetal versus adult origin differ in ability to contract collagen and define the molecular underpinnings, we performed three-dimensional collagen contraction assay, analyzed their differential mRNA profile, specifically for transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signaling pathway and extracellular matrix components, studied the cell response to TGF-beta in culture, and used two-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by mass spectrometry to identify differences in their overall proteomes. Human lung fetal fibroblasts contracted the collagen matrix less than the adults. Smooth muscle actin expression did not differ. TGF-beta stimulation resulted in greater Smad3 phosphorylation in fetal compared with adults. mRNA and proteomic profiling reveal a number of TGF-beta pathways, ECM components, and cytoskeletal regulatory molecules are differentially expressed between the cell types. Of note is TGF-beta receptor interacting protein 1 (TRIP-1), which we show inhibits fibroblast collagen contraction and is higher in fetal than adult fibroblasts. We conclude that human lung fetal fibroblasts are less able to contract collagen than adult lung fibroblasts. The diminished ability is not due to impediment of Smad3 activation but rather, at least in part, due to their higher level of TRIP-1 expression. TRIP-1 is a novel modulator of fibroblast collagen contraction.

Oxygen toxicity or hyperoxia is one of the major contributing factors in the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) is an important chaperone protein in the postnatal lung development. However, the role of Hsp27 in lung epithelial cells during hyperoxia is unclear. Our studies by cDNA array and immunohistochemistry revealed that hyperoxia decreased Hsp27 expression in newborn rat lungs. Western blot showed that hyperoxic treatment significantly decreased Hsp27 protein expression in cultured human lung epithelial cells (A549). The expression of Hsp27 was decreased approximately twofold after 24-h and threefold after 48- and 72-h hyperoxic exposure compared with that of the A549 cells exposed to normoxia (p < 0.05, n = 3). Knockdown of Hsp27 expression by siRNA resulted in more apoptotic cell death in A549 cells. Overexpression of Hsp27 reduced hyperoxia-induced apoptotic cell death to 9.2% in Hsp27 overexpressing A549 cells from 12.6% in control A549 cells after 72-h hyperoxic exposure (p < 0.01, n = 8-9). Overexpression of Hsp27 also diminished hyperoxia-induced caspase-9 activation in A549 cells. Our results demonstrated that hyperoxia decreased Hsp27 expression in newborn rat lung and cultured human lung epithelial cells. Overexpression of Hsp27 could reduce hyperoxia-induced apoptosis in cultured human lung epithelial cells.

The lymphatic vasculature functions to maintain tissue perfusion homeostasis. Defects in its formation or disruption of the vessels result in lymphedema, the effective treatment of which is hampered by limited understanding of factors regulating lymph vessel formation. Mice lacking T1α/podoplanin, a lymphatic endothelial cell transmembrane protein, have malformed lymphatic vasculature with lymphedema at birth, but the molecular mechanism for this phenotype is unknown. Here, we show, using primary human lung microvascular lymphatic endothelial cells (HMVEC-LLy), that small interfering RNA-mediated silence of podoplanin gene expression has the dramatic effect of blocking capillary tube formation in Matrigel. In addition, localization of phosphorylated ezrin/radixin/moesin proteins to plasma membrane extensions, an early event in the capillary morphogenic program in lymphatic endothelial cells, is impaired. We find that cells with decreased podoplanin expression fail to properly activate the small GTPase RhoA early (by 30 min) after plating on Matrigel, and Rac1 shows a delay in its activation. Further indication that podoplanin action is linked to RhoA activation is that use of a cell-permeable inhibitor of Rho inhibited lymphatic endothelial capillary tube formation in the same manner as did podoplanin gene silencing, which was not mimicked by treatment with a Rac1 inhibitor. These data clearly demonstrate that early activation of RhoA in the lymphangiogenic process, which is required for the successful establishment of the capillary network, is dependent on podoplanin expression. To our knowledge, this is the first time that a mechanism has been suggested to explain the role of podoplanin in lymphangiogenesis.

Hyperoxia is one of the major contributors to the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a chronic lung disease in premature infants. Emerging evidence suggests that the arrested lung development of BPD is associated with pulmonary endothelial cell death and vascular dysfunction resulting from hyperoxia-induced lung injury. A better understanding of the mechanism of hyperoxia-induced endothelial cell death will provide critical information for the pathogenesis and therapeutic development of BPD. Epidermal growth factor-like domain 7 (EGFL7) is a protein secreted from endothelial cells. It plays an important role in vascular tubulogenesis. In the present study, we found that Egfl7 gene expression was significantly decreased in the neonatal rat lungs after hyperoxic exposure. The Egfl7 expression was returned to near normal level 2 wk after discounting oxygen exposure during recovery period. In cultured human endothelial cells, hyperoxia also significantly reduced Egfl7 expression. These observations suggest that diminished levels of Egfl7 expression might be associated with hyperoxia-induced endothelial cell death and lung injury. When we overexpressed human Egfl7 ( hEgfl7) in EA.hy926 human endothelial cell line, we found that hEgfl7 overexpression could partially block cytochrome c release from mitochondria and decrease caspase-3 activation. Further Western blotting analyses showed that hEgfl7 overexpression could reduce expression of a proapoptotic protein, Bax, and increase expression of an antiapoptotic protein, Bcl-xL. Theses findings indicate that hEGFL7 may protect endothelial cell from hyperoxia-induced apoptosis by inhibition of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway.