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The edited volume, Varieties of Jesus Mythicism, aims to present diverse approaches and theories to the debate on Jesus’ historical existence. While it includes several enlightening and worthwhile contributions, there are too many amateur contributions employing dubious claims and methodologies. The result is that, apart from the few worthy contributions, the book as a whole is only useful for comparing poor with genuine scholarship. And some advice on how to make such a comparison, so as to distinguish the one from the other, is here provided.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are some of the most prominent organic contaminants in human blood. Although the toxicological implications of human exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) are well established, data on lesser-understood PFAS are limited. New approach methodologies (NAMs) that apply bioinformatic tools to high-throughput data are being increasingly considered to inform risk assessment for data-poor chemicals. The aim of this study was to compare the potencies (ie, benchmark concentrations: BMCs) of PFAS in primary human liver microtissues (3D spheroids) using high-throughput transcriptional profiling. Gene expression changes were measured using TempO-seq, a templated, multiplexed RNA-sequencing platform. Spheroids were exposed for 1 or 10 days to increasing concentrations of 23 PFAS in 3 subgroups: carboxylates (PFCAs), sulfonates (PFSAs), and fluorotelomers and sulfonamides. PFCAs and PFSAs exhibited trends toward increased transcriptional potency with carbon chain-length. Specifically, longer-chain compounds (7–10 carbons) were more likely to induce changes in gene expression and have lower transcriptional BMCs. The combined high-throughput transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses support the capability of NAMs to efficiently assess the effects of PFAS in liver microtissues. The data enable potency ranking of PFAS for human liver cell spheroid cytotoxicity and transcriptional changes, and assessment of in vitro transcriptomic points of departure. These data improve our understanding of the possible health effects of PFAS and will be used to inform read-across for human health risk assessment.

Bayes’ Theorem is a simple mathematical equation that can model every empirical argument. Accordingly, once understood it can be used to analyze, criticize, or improve any argument in matters of fact. By extension, it can substantially improve an overall argument for atheism (here meaning the belief that supernatural gods probably do not exist) by revealing that god apologetics generally operates through the omission of evidence, and how every argument for there being a god becomes an argument against there being a god once you reintroduce all the pertinent evidence that the original argument left out. This revelation further reveals that god apologetics generally operates through the omission of evidence. This paper demonstrates these propositions by illustrating their application with examples.

Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely found in the environment because of their extensive use and persistence. Although several PFAS are well studied, most lack toxicity data to inform human health hazard and risk assessment. This study focused on 4 model PFAS: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA; 8 carbon), perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS; 4 carbon), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS; 8 carbon), and perfluorodecane sulfonate (PFDS; 10 carbon). Human primary liver cell spheroids (pooled from 10 donors) were exposed to 10 concentrations of each PFAS and analyzed at 4 time points. The approach aimed to: (1) identify gene expression changes mediated by the PFAS, (2) identify similarities in biological responses, (3) compare PFAS potency through benchmark concentration analysis, and (4) derive bioactivity exposure ratios (ratio of the concentration at which biological responses occur, relative to daily human exposure). All PFAS induced transcriptional changes in cholesterol biosynthesis and lipid metabolism pathways, and predicted PPARα activation. PFOS exhibited the most transcriptional activity and had a highly similar gene expression profile to PFDS. PFBS induced the least transcriptional changes and the highest benchmark concentration (ie, was the least potent). The data indicate that these PFAS may have common molecular targets and toxicities, but that PFOS and PFDS are the most similar. The transcriptomic bioactivity exposure ratios derived here for PFOA and PFOS were comparable to those derived using rodent apical endpoints in risk assessments. These data provide a baseline level of toxicity for comparison with other known PFAS using this testing strategy.

To oppose Secularism modern Christians depend on myths about the historical development of civilization. Such as the myth of a Christian America, imagining such things as that the United States Constitution was based on Biblical Christian principles. Parallel to this myth is another about science: that the Scientific Revolution, and therefore modern science, was based on Biblical Christian principles and could not have occurred (and therefore cannot continue) without them. Necessary to this are several false claims, most particularly that ancient pagans never did and never could have made any significant scientific progress, and that Christian theology was essential to doing so. These myths are here dispelled with recourse to a survey of the actual facts of the matter.

The Canadian government has been involved in developing regulations and guidance for certain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) since the early 2000s. Several federal departments are involved in different aspects of this work. Significant PFAS work is carried out under the Federal Contaminated Sites Action Plan (FCSAP), which provides a structure for the dozens of departments that are implicated in federal contaminated sites management in Canada. The work carried out under FCSAP is largely related to the PFAS resulting from aqueous film forming foams (AFFF) use. The Chemicals Management Plan (CMP) is another program with significant involvement in the assessment and management of certain PFAS. This work includes the publication of screening assessments on perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and long-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (LC-PFCAs) which led to their regulation. Risk assessments identify whether a chemical substance poses a risk, and if so, risk managers determine how best to minimise or eliminate the risk to protect the public and the environment. Highlights of work carried out under FCSAP, CMP, and existing regulations are discussed herein. Environmental quality guidelines and drinking water quality guidelines provide benchmarks for the quality of the ambient environment. Canadian federal guidelines or screening values to protect human health are now available for eleven (11) PFAS, while values to protect ecological receptors are available for PFOS. Development of our understanding, including the review of new information on PFAS (those for which guidelines exist and additional substances) is ongoing. Ongoing scientific research and risk management at contaminated sites in Canada have also been part of efforts by multiple federal departments in Canada. In this report, we will outline some of these projects and how they inform the development of additional environmental quality guidelines and advance contaminated sites risk management.

The consideration of inhalation and dermal routes of exposures in developing guideline values for drinking water contaminants is important. However, there is no guidance for determining the eligibility of a drinking water contaminant for its multiroute exposure potential. The objective of the present study was to develop a 4-step framework to screen chemicals for their dermal and inhalation exposure potential in the process of developing guideline values. The proposed framework emphasizes the importance of considering basic physicochemical properties prior to detailed assessment of dermal and inhalation routes of exposure to drinking water contaminants in setting guideline values.

Some scholars have argued that Tacitus’ reference to Christ in connection with the burning of Rome under Nero is a 4th century (or later) interpolation. It is here argued that their arguments can be met with no strong rebuttal, and therefore the key sentence in Tacitus referring to Christ should be considered suspect.

“Atheism+” or “Atheism Plus” was first promoted by atheist activist Jennifer McCreight, at the suggestion of one of her readers, to describe a movement that had been growing within New Atheism for several years. It is a movement for promoting moral values and the discussion of societal problems among atheists, and for making the atheist community more welcoming of, and responsive to, women and minorities.

In the risk assessment process, the reference dose, tolerable intake, or acceptable daily intake (RfD, TDI, ADI) is apportioned to specific exposure sources on the basis of a source allocation factor (AF) or relative source contribution (RSC). The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published an exposure decision tree framework in 2000 to guide the determination of AF (or RSC) of drinking-water contaminants (DWC). Besides that, there has not been any systematic analysis of the basis of the use of AF in DWC risk assessments. This article therefore critically reviews and integrates current knowledge and approaches for the development of AF, while focusing on its consistent use in DWC risk assessments based on consideration of (i) risk assessment endpoint, (ii) existing guidelines, (iii) exposure estimates, (iv) usage pattern and environmental fate information, (v) physicochemical properties, (vi) bounds of AF, (vii) multiroute exposures, and (viii) target population characteristics. Accordingly, for a DWC for which drinking water is not a major source of exposure and for which there is documented evidence of widespread presence in one or more of the other media (i.e., air, food, soil, or consumer products), the use of an AF value of 0.2 is suggested. For DWC for which drinking water represents nearly the single major source of exposure, a ceiling AF value of 0.8 is suggested. For other situations, chemical- and context-specific AF values can be developed based on exposure data or models, which should in turn be bounded by the floor and ceiling AF values as originally described by the U.S. EPA (i.e., 0.2-0.8). Future studies need to focus on improvements in methods for deriving AF, by basing it on the consideration of bioavailability, target tissue dose, and extent of route-specific absorption, as well as improvement in the modeling of dose received via direct/voluntary exposure through consumer products and at workplaces.

Analysis of the evidence from the works of Origen, Eusebius, and Hegesippus concludes that the reference to "Christ" in Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 20.200 is probably an accidental interpolation or scribal emendation and that the passage was never originally about Christ or Christians. It referred not to James the brother of Jesus Christ, but probably to James the brother of the Jewish high priest Jesus ben Damneus.

No evidence exists that the accidental origin of life is too improbable to have occurred naturally, but there are numerous attempts to argue so. Dizzying statistics are cited to show that a god had to be responsible. This paper identifies the Argument from Biogenesis, then explains why all these arguments so far fail, and what would actually have to be done to make such an argument succeed. Describes seven general types of error, with examples. Includes a table of forty-seven statistics used by over twenty authors to date.

In establishing the guideline values for chemical contaminants in drinking water, the contribution of inhalation and dermal routes associated with showering/bathing needs to be evaluated. The present article reviews the current approaches available for evaluating the importance of inhalation and dermal routes of exposure to drinking water contaminants (DWCs) and integrates them within a 2-tier approach. Accordingly, tier 1 would evaluate whether the dermal or inhalation route is likely to contribute to at least 10% of the dose received from ingestion of drinking water (i.e., 0.15 L-equivalent per day based on the daily water intake rate of 1.5 L/day typically used in Health Canada assessments). Based on the route-specific exposure parameters (i.e., area of skin exposed, effective skin permeability coefficient [K(p)], and air to water concentration ratio during use conditions [F(air-water)], breathing rate, duration of contact, and fraction absorbed), it was determined that for DWCs with K(p) less than 0.024 cm/hr and F(air - water) less than 0.0063, the dermal and inhalation routes during showering or bathing are unlikely to contribute significantly to the total dose. For DWCs with K(p) value equal to or greater than 0.025 cm/hr, dermal notation is implied, and as such, tier 2 calculation of L-equivalent associated with dermal exposure needs to be performed. Similarly, for DWCs with F(air-water) greater than 0.00063, inhalation notation is implied, and detailed evaluation of the L-equivalent associated with inhalation exposure (i.e., tier 2) is suggested. In general, data from human volunteer studies, observational measurements, and targeted modeling studies are useful for deriving L-equivalents, reflective of the magnitude of dose received via dermal and inhalation routes relative to the oral route. However, in resource-limited situations, these approaches can be integrated within a 2-tier approach for prioritizing and providing quantitative evaluations of the relevance of dermal and inhalation routes for developing exposure guidelines for DWCs.

Uncertainty factors are used in the development of drinking-water guidelines to account for uncertainties in the database, including extrapolations of toxicity from animal studies and variability within humans, which result in some uncertainty about risk. The application of uncertainty factors is entrenched in toxicological risk assessment worldwide, but is not applied consistently. This report, prepared in collaboration with Health Canada, provides an assessment of the derivation of the uncertainty factor assumptions used in developing drinking-water quality guidelines for chemical contaminants. Assumptions used by Health Canada in the development of guidelines were compared to several other major regulatory jurisdictions. This assessment has revealed that uncertainty factor assumptions have been substantially influenced by historical practice. While the application of specific uncertainty factors appears to be well entrenched in regulatory practice, a well-documented and disciplined basis for the selection of these factors was not apparent in any of the literature supporting the default assumptions of Canada, the United States, Australia, or the World Health Organization. While there is a basic scheme used in most cases in developing drinking-water quality guidelines for nonthreshold contaminants by the jurisdictions included in this report, additional factors are sometimes included to account for other areas of uncertainty. These factors may include extrapolating subchronic data to anticipated chronic exposure, or use of a LOAEL instead of a NOAEL. The default value attributed to each uncertainty factor is generally a factor of 3 or 10; however, again, no comprehensive guidance to develop and apply these additional uncertainty factors was evident from the literature reviewed. A decision tree has been developed to provide guidance for selection of appropriate uncertainty factors, to account for the range of uncertainty encountered in the risk assessment process. Recent development of a series of "decision trees" by WHO to derive chemical specific adjustment factors for inter- and intraspecies variability may present an opportunity for a more systematic approach for the identification of evidence-based uncertainty factors.

Raw and treated water samples and tap water samples from four to six houses located on distribution lines where PVC pipe/tubing had been recently installed were collected in five Canadian municipalities for the analysis of organotin compounds. After derivatisation with sodium tetraethylborate the ethylated organotin compounds were extracted with hexane and analysed by gas chromatography-microwave induced plasma atomic emission spectrometry using a wavelength (326.234 nm) specific for tin. Organotin compounds, mainly methyltin and dimethyltin at concentrations ranging respectively from 0.5 to 257 ng Sn/L and from 0.5 to 6.5 ng Sn/L, were detected in samples from ten of the twenty-two houses. No organotin compounds were detected in raw water or treated water leaving the treatment plant, indicating that the organotin compounds were leaching into the water from some component of the distribution system.