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The influence of climate change on wildlife disease dynamics is a burgeoning conservation and human health issue, but few long-term studies empirically link climate to pathogen prevalence. Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are vulnerable to the negative impacts of sea ice loss as a result of accelerated Arctic warming. While studies have associated changes in polar bear body condition, reproductive output, survival, and abundance to reductions in sea ice, no long-term studies have documented the impact of climate change on pathogen exposure. We examined 425 serum samples from 381 adult polar bears, collected in western Hudson Bay (WH), Canada, for antibodies to selected pathogens across three time periods: 1986-1989 (n = 157), 1995-1998 (n = 159) and 2015-2017 (n = 109). We ran serological assays for antibodies to seven pathogens: Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Trichinella spp., Francisella tularensis, Bordetella bronchiseptica, canine morbillivirus (CDV) and canine parvovirus (CPV). Seroprevalence of zoonotic parasites (T. gondii, Trichinella spp.) and bacterial pathogens (F. tularensis, B. bronchiseptica) increased significantly between 1986-1989 and 1995-1998, ranging from +6.2% to +20.8%, with T. gondii continuing to increase into 2015-2017 (+25.8% overall). Seroprevalence of viral pathogens (CDV, CPV) and N. caninum did not change with time. Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence was higher following wetter summers, while seroprevalences of Trichinella spp. and B. bronchiseptica were positively correlated with hotter summers. Seroprevalence of antibodies to F. tularensis increased following years polar bears spent more days on land, and polar bears previously captured in human settlements were more likely to be seropositive for Trichinella spp. As the Arctic has warmed due to climate change, zoonotic pathogen exposure in WH polar bears has increased, driven by numerous altered ecosystem pathways., (© 2021 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Global Change Biology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Health and Department of the Environment.)

Bordetella bronchiseptica is a promiscuous bacterium that infects a variety of species but has not been reported in free-ranging polar bears (Ursus maritimus) . Sera from 385 polar bears from the western Hudson Bay region, 1986 to 2017, were tested for reactivity to B. bronchiseptica with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays using anti-canine IgG and Streptococcus protein G as secondary reagents. Sera from bears had variable reactivity to B. bronchiseptica antigens, and there was no difference among bears that had a history of coming near the town of Churchill, Manitoba, and bears that did not. Although the sources of exposure were not determined, equivalent results in both groups suggest that potential exposure to humans (aside from handling during sampling) and their animals (dogs) was not an important co-factor in sero-positivity to B. bronchiseptica ., (Copyright and/or publishing rights held by the Canadian Veterinary Medical Association.)

A histopathologic study of free-ranging hummingbirds found in California, US was performed to identify mortality trends. Tissues from 61 wild hummingbirds representing five native California species collected by the San Diego Zoo from 1996 to 2016 or the Lindsay Wildlife Experience from 2015 to 2017 were histologically examined. Birds were either found dead or moribund at the time of submission or were euthanized due to unresolvable health issues. Long-term rehabilitated birds were excluded from this study. Lesions were sorted by organ, etiology, and gender. The most commonly affected organs were the lung (68%, 40/59), followed by the ingluvies (67%, 34/51) and the liver (54%, 33/61). While some birds had minimal or nonspecific lesions, 23% (14/61) had lesions primarily attributable to trauma, 16% (10/61) had lesions associated with bacteria, fungi, or viruses, 11% (7/61) had parasitic lesions, and 13% (8/61) had multifactorial concurrent processes. Infectious disease lesions included those associated with avian poxvirus, intestinal adenovirus, disseminated aspergillosis, bacterial septicemia, malaria ( Haemoproteus spp.), and mycobacteriosis. The most commonly identified parasitic infection was intestinal cestodiasis, for which there was no significant associated intestinal damage, although the large size of these cestodes may have affected digestion. The incidence of traumatic lesions did not vary significantly by sex, age, species, or sampling location. Other significant findings not related to disease or trauma, but not previously documented, were histologic evidence of a gallbladder and the presence of aortic ossification. Our study reported mortality trends at a population level for free-ranging hummingbirds found in California and identified the presence of intestinal adenovirus and two anatomic structures not previously described.

Although Salmonella spp. infection has been identified in captive and free-ranging rhinoceros, clinical cases in black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis ) calves have not been described. This case series describes clinical salmonellosis in four black rhinoceros calves. Two calves developed self-limiting diarrhea, recovering after treatment. The other two cases were fatal. One of the fatal cases had a short clinical course, whereas the other case was protracted, with signs reflecting multiple organ system involvement. In all cases, diagnosis was by fecal culture and/or quantitative polymerase chain reaction. A variable clinical presentation, which is typical for salmonellosis in domestic hoofstock, was a feature of these rhinoceros cases. Similarly, postmortem pathology in black rhinoceros calves was consistent with domestic neonatal ungulates with salmonellosis. Potential predisposing factors for infection were considered to be primiparity of the dam and failure of passive transfer in the calf. The case investigation included attempts to identify the source of infection, which was aided by organism serotyping. In one case, the patient's dam and another conspecific in the facility were shown to be asymptomatic shedders of the organism strain responsible for disease in the calf. Further surveillance of captive rhinoceros Salmonella spp. carrier status is needed to inform screening recommendations for this taxa.

The preshipment examination, with associated transmissible disease testing, has become standard practice in the movement of animals between zoos. An alternative disease risk-based approach, based on a comprehensive surveillance program including necropsy and preventive medicine examination testing and data, has been in practice since 2006 between the San Diego Zoo and San Diego Zoo Safari Park. A retrospective analysis, evaluating comprehensive necropsy data and preshipment testing over a 5-yr study period, was performed to determine the viability of this model for use with sending animals to other institutions. Animals (607 birds, 704 reptiles and amphibians, and 341 mammals) were shipped to 116 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)-accredited and 29 non-AZA-accredited institutions. The evaluation showed no evidence of the specific transmissible diseases tested for during the preshipment exam being present within the San Diego Zoo collection. We suggest that a risk-based animal and institution-specific approach to transmissible disease preshipment testing is more cost effective and is in the better interest of animal welfare than the current industry standard of dogmatic preshipment testing.

Quarantine is designed primarily to prevent the introduction of transmissible diseases to zoological collections. Improvements in preventive medicine, disease eradication, and comprehensive pathology programs call into question current industry quarantine standards. Disease risk analysis was used at the San Diego Zoo (SDZ) and the SDZ Safari Park to eliminate quarantine isolation and transmissible disease testing for animals transferred between the two institutions. To determine if a risk-based approach might be valid between other institutions and SDZ, we reviewed quarantine data for animals arriving at SDZ from 81 Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA)-accredited and 124 other sources (e.g., non-AZA-accredited institutions, private breeders, private dealers, governmental bodies) over a 5-yr period (2009-2013). No mammal or herptile failed quarantine due to transmissible diseases of concern. Approximately 2.5% of incoming birds failed quarantine due to transmissible disease; however, all 14 failed individuals were obtained from three nonaccredited sources (private breeders, confiscation). The results of our study suggest that a risk-based approach could be used to minimize or eliminate quarantine for the transfer of animals from institutions with comprehensive disease surveillance programs and/or preshipment testing practices. Quarantine isolation with testing remains an essential defense against introducing transmissible diseases of concern when there is a lack of health knowledge about the animals being received.

Following field observations of wild Agassiz's desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) with oral lesions similar to those seen in captive tortoises with herpesvirus infection, we measured the prevalence of antibodies to Testudinid herpesvirus (TeHV) 3 in wild populations of desert tortoises in California. The survey revealed 30.9% antibody prevalence. In 2009 and 2010, two wild adult male desert tortoises, with gross lesions consistent with trauma and puncture wounds, respectively, were necropsied. Tortoise 1 was from the central Mojave Desert and tortoise 2 was from the northeastern Mojave Desert. We extracted DNA from the tongue of tortoise 1 and from the tongue and nasal mucosa of tortoise 2. Sequencing of polymerase chain reaction products of the herpesviral DNA-dependent DNA polymerase gene and the UL39 gene respectively showed 100% nucleotide identity with TeHV2, which was previously detected in an ill captive desert tortoise in California. Although several cases of herpesvirus infection have been described in captive desert tortoises, our findings represent the first conclusive molecular evidence of TeHV2 infection in wild desert tortoises. The serologic findings support cross-reactivity between TeHV2 and TeHV3. Further studies to determine the ecology, prevalence, and clinical significance of this virus in tortoise populations are needed.

Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare are primary causes of mycobacteriosis in captive birds throughout the world, but little is known about how they are transmitted. To define the local epidemiology of infection, we strain-typed 70 M. avium subsp. avium and 15 M. intracellulare culture isolates obtained over a 4-year period from captive birds. Typing was performed using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) PCR, amplified fragment length polymorphic (AFLP) fragment analyses, and for a subset of isolates, DNA sequencing of a segment of the 16S-23S rRNA internal transcribed spacer region. Six strain clusters comprising 43 M. avium subsp. avium, isolates were identified; 42 isolates had unique typing patterns, including all M. intracellulare isolates. Phylo-geographical analyses using RAPD and AFLP fingerprints and animal confinement histories showed no correlation between housing of infected birds and mycobacterial strain-type, except for two animals. The diversity of M. avium subsp. avium and M. intracellulare isolates and minimal evidence for bird-to-bird transmission suggest that environmental reservoirs may be important sources of infection in captivity.

Historically, public health nurses have been the cornerstone of keeping communities healthy. Ideally, primary care is the point of access for health care and nurse practitioners provide cost-effective, high quality primary care. It is a natural progression to build a nurse-managed health center on the foundation of public health nursing with primary care provided by nurse practitioners. Such collaboration produced the 11th Street Family Health Services of Drexel University serving the most vulnerable census tracts in Pennsylvania.

An adenovirus was detected by electron microscopy in tissues from falcons that died during an outbreak of inclusion body hepatitis and enteritis that affected neonatal Northern aplomado (Falco femoralis septentrionalis) and peregrine (Falco peregrinus anatum) falcons. Molecular characterization has identified the falcon virus as a new member of the aviadenovirus group (M. Schrenzel, J. L. Oaks, D. Rotstein, G. Maalouf, E. Snook, C. Sandfort, and B. Rideout, J. Clin. Microbiol. 43:3402-3413, 2005). In this study, the virus was successfully isolated and propagated in peregrine falcon embryo fibroblasts, in which it caused visible and reproducible cytopathology. Testing for serum neutralizing antibodies found that infection with this virus was limited almost exclusively to falcons. Serology also found that wild and captive peregrine falcons had high seropositivity rates of 80% and 100%, respectively, although clinical disease was rarely reported in this species. These data implicate peregrine falcons as the natural host and primary reservoir for the virus. Other species of North American falcons, including aplomado falcons, had lower seropositivity rates of 43 to 57%. Falcon species of tropical and/or island origin were uniformly seronegative, although deaths among adults of these species have been described, suggesting they are highly susceptible. Chickens and quail were uniformly seronegative and not susceptible to infection, indicating that fowl were not the source of infection. Based on the information from this study, the primary control of falcon adenovirus infections should be based on segregation of carrier and susceptible falcon species.

In 1996, a disease outbreak occurred at a captive breeding facility in Idaho, causing anorexia, dehydration, and diarrhea or sudden death in 72 of 110 Northern aplomado falcons (Falco femoralis septentrionalis) from 9 to 35 days of age and in 6 of 102 peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) from 14 to 25 days of age. Sixty-two Northern aplomado and six peregrine falcons died. Epidemiologic analyses indicated a point source epizootic, horizontal transmission, and increased relative risk associated with cross-species brooding of eggs. Primary lesions in affected birds were inclusion body hepatitis, splenomegaly, and enteritis. The etiology in all mortalities was determined by molecular analyses to be a new species of adenovirus distantly related to the group I avian viruses, serotypes 1 and 4, Aviadenovirus. In situ hybridization and PCR demonstrated that the virus was epitheliotropic and lymphotropic and that infection was systemic in the majority of animals. Adeno-associated virus was also detected by PCR in most affected falcons, but no other infectious agents or predisposing factors were found in any birds. Subsequent to the 1996 epizootic, a similar disease caused by the same adenovirus was found over a 5-year period in orange-breasted falcons (Falco deiroleucus), teita falcons (Falco fasciinucha), a merlin (Falco columbarius), a Vanuatu peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus nesiotes), and gyrfalcon x peregrine falcon hybrids (Falco rusticolus/peregrinus) that died in Wyoming, Oklahoma, Minnesota, and California. These findings indicate that this newly recognized adenovirus is widespread in western and midwestern North America and can be a primary pathogen in different falcon species.

Transitional cell carcinomas (TCC) of the urinary bladder were diagnosed in four related fishing cats (Prionailurus viverrinus). The major clinical sign in each case was persistent hematuria unresponsive to medical therapy. Cystotomy and biopsy provided an antemortem diagnosis in three of the fishing cats before euthanasia because of progression of clinical signs. The diagnosis was made in the fourth cat after euthanasia because of renal failure. Hematuria improved temporarily in one of the cats diagnosed antemortem and treated with piroxicam and carboplatin. Attempts to isolate a herpesvirus in two of the cats failed. Histopathologic appearance of the TCC was similar to that described for other species. TCC metastasis to the lungs was noted at necropsy in one cat; metastatic disease was not noted in the other fishing cats on gross or histopathologic examination. TCC of the urinary bladder appears to be more prevalent in fishing cats than in other species of domestic or nondomestic felids.

Tonsillectomy remains one of the most common surgical procedures performed worldwide. Recent advancements in equipment technology have ushered in several new tonsillectomy techniques. Among these is the Colorado tip electromicrodissection needle. In this report, we describe the technical aspects of this modality and report our results in a prospective study of 12 adults and 13 children. We then compare our results with several published series using a variety of techniques. We found tonsillectomy using the electromicrodissection needle compares most favorably in all criteria examined, including operative and perioperative blood loss, perioperative pain, return to regular diet, and cost. We conclude that electromicrodissection tonsillectomy is an excellent option for all surgeons performing tonsillectomy.

Of the approximately 100,000 Americans with primary (idiopathic) laryngeal dystonia, 10% to 15% are thought to havethe abductor form. Botulinum A toxin injected into the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle and/or cricothyroid muscle has been employed as the "gold standard" for therapeutic management; however, successful results are significantly less frequent than with injections for the adductor form. This report describes a new phonosurgical procedure, posterior cricoarytenoid myoplasty with medialization thyroplasty, designed for these refractory patients. Posterior cricoarytenoid myoplasty with medialization thyroplasty has been performed on 3 patients with abductor laryngeal dystonia. All patients had failed at least 5 previous botulinum A injections to the posterior cricoarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles. All patients underwent preoperative and 3 postoperative (2 weeks, 3 months, and 1 year) phonatory analyses. Analysis consisted of recording an aloud reading of a standard passage while a blinded trained speech pathologist counted prolonged voiceless consonants. The patients also completed a satisfaction survey at 1 year. The results demonstrated significant, long-lasting, uniform reduction in breathy breaks in all subjects. The participants all judged their symptoms as greatly improved. Bilateral procedures may be necessary, but should be staged to prevent possible airway compromise. When applied appropriately, posterior cricoarytenoid myoplasty with medialization thyroplasty is a viable tool in the management of refractory abductor laryngeal dystonia.

The 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) is the most endangered corvid in the world, and intensive efforts are being made to reintroduce it to its former native range in Hawaii. We diagnosed Toxoplasma gondii infection in five free-ranging 'Alala. One 'Alala, recaptured from the wild because it was underweight and depressed, was treated with diclazuril (10 mg/kg) orally for 10 days. Antibodies were measured before and after treatment by the modified agglutination test (MAT) using whole T. gondii tachyzoites fixed in formalin and mercaptoethanol. The MAT titer decreased four-fold from an initial titer of 1:1,600 with remarkable improvement in physical condition. Lesions of toxoplasmosis also were seen in two partially scavenged carcasses and in a third fresh intact carcass. Toxoplasma gondii was confirmed immunohistochemically by using anti-T. gondii specific serum. The organism was also cultured by bioassay in mice from tissues of one of these birds and the brain of a fifth 'Alala that did not exhibit lesions. The life cycle of the parasite was experimentally completed in cats. This is the first record of toxoplasmosis in 'Alala, and the parasite appears to pose a significant threat and management challenge to reintroduction programs for 'Alala in Hawaii.

The suggestion by others that previous replications of the Mozart effect in this laboratory are due to suppression of arousal from a relaxation control procedure is inconsistent with our published data.

Previous attempts by various researchers to replicate the enhancement of spatial performance following 10 min. exposure to music have been inconsistent in their findings. In the present study 16 subjects showed reliable improvement on a paper-folding-and-cutting task after listening to Mozart's Sonata for Two Pianos in D major, as employed by others. The enhanced performance was also noted for 16 other subjects after listening to a contemporary selection having similar musical characteristics. In both cases the control procedure included 10 min. of listening to a progressive relaxation tape.

This report describes vaccine-induced canine distemper virus (CDV) infection in four European mink (Mustela lutreola) induced by the administration of a multivalent, avian-origin vaccine. Clinical signs consisting of seizures, ataxia, facial twitching, oculonasal discharge, hyperkeratosis of footpads, and anorexia developed 16-20 days postvaccination. Conjunctival smears from one animal were positive for CDV antigen by direct fluorescent antibody testing, confirming the clinical diagnosis. The four mink died 16-26 days postvaccination. Gross and microscopic lesions that were diagnostic for CDV infection included interstitial pneumonia, lymphoid depletion, nonsuppurative encephalitis, and dermatitis. Vaccine-strain virus was isolated from tissues of three animals. Cases of vaccine-induced distemper in mustelids using avian-origin vaccine have seldom been reported.

Previous research has demonstrated that 10 min. exposure to classical music can influence performance on a spatial task. The effect, however, has not been robust, suggesting a sensitivity to individual differences and task operationalization. The present study involved a further replication of this effect. 16 female and 16 male undergraduates completed two equivalent spatial tests, one following a control procedure and one following the presentation of Mozart's Sonata for two pianos in D major. Performance showed a small but significant improvement immediately following presentation of the music.

Previous research has shown that exposure to classical music can influence performance on a spatial task. The present study investigated EEG correlates of this enhanced performance effect, 4 female and 4 male undergraduates completed two equivalent spatial tests, one following a control procedure and one following the presentation of Mozart's Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major. EEG was recorded during a baseline and two task-performance periods. Test performance and EEG recordings were analyzed, and correlations were generated between task performance and EEG variables (average spectral power and peak frequency within 5 frequency ranges). Performance improved significantly following the presentation of the music. EEG analysis indicated 6 reliable correlations out of 40 calculated between differential EEG variables and changes in performance. Ten reliable correlations out of 120 were also found between changes in performance and nondifferential EEG variables across baseline, control, and experimental conditions.

Between 1988 and 1991, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection status was evaluated in 1,160 cats examined at an oncology referral and general practice in Los Angeles, California. Twenty-nine (2.5%) cats were FIV positive. Neoplasia was present in 18 of the 29 (62%) cats. Sampling for neoplasia was intentionally biased in the oncology referral group. However, 33% (6/18) of FIV-infected cats with neoplasia originated from the general practice. Three neoplastic processes were observed; myeloproliferative disease (MPD; 5/18), lymphoma (LSA; 5/18), and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC; 7/18). One cat had LSA and SCC. Extranodal sites of LSA were common (66%) in FIV-infected cats. Sites of LSA were submandibular and mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, kidneys, periorbital area, and diffuse (heart, pancreas, bladder). Sites of SCC were sublingual (n = 2), nasal planum (n = 3), nasal planum and eyelids (n = 1), and mandible (n = 2). Feline leukemia virus co-infection was observed in 17% (5/29) of FIV-infected cats. The FIV-infected cats with MPD were young (range, 8 months to 13 years; median, 4 years) and had short survival duration (2, 6, 21, 134, 249 days) even in response to aggressive treatment. The FIV-infected cats with LSA were older (median age, 8 years; range, 4 to 14 years) and survived 60 days if untreated. Cats administered chemotherapy survived 39, 45, 217, and 243 days; the latter 2 cats had partial remission of 2 months' duration. Older FIV-infected cats had SCC (median age, 12 years; remission range, 7 to 16 years) because of more frequent association of both diseases in older cats with outdoor environment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Specific pathogen-free domestic cats with experimentally induced feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infections of short duration (less than or equal to 10 months) exhibited depressed total leukocyte and neutrophil numbers and a marginally decreased lymphocyte proliferative response to pokeweed mitogen (PWM), while cats with infections of more lengthy duration (greater than or equal to 25 months) exhibited normal leukocyte and neutrophil numbers but a dramatic loss of responsiveness to both PWM and concanavalin A (Con A). Cats with short-term infections exhibited a decrease in the percentage of CD4+ lymphocytes in peripheral blood and a corresponding depression of the CD4+:CD8+ ratio. Cats with long-term infections exhibited a similar but more profound perturbation of the CD4+ lymphocyte subset that also included a decrease in the absolute number of CD4+ cells. The decreased responsiveness to Con A and PWM in cats infected long term paralleled the decline in CD4+ cell counts, and the duration of infection was directly correlated with the decrease in the percentage of CD4+ cells. These data provide evidence supporting the hypothesis that FIV is the cause of an immune dysfunction in cats, with distinct similarities to that produced by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in people.

A new monoclonal antibody raised against gradient-purified feline immunodeficiency virus was found to recognize a bimolecular complex, comprising 27-29 kD and 32-35 kD subunits, on feline peripheral blood lymphocytes. Immunoperoxidase staining of feline tissues with this antibody, designated 43.2H2, demonstrated a reactivity pattern similar to that described for MHC II antigens of the dog, horse, and pig, but differed from human and mouse in having staining of T-cell zones in spleen and lymph nodes. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that 42.3H2 reacted with 88.97% +/- 16.00% of feline peripheral blood lymphocytes (n = 20). This high level of reactivity was found to be consistent by repeated sampling over a 4-month period. Two-color flow cytometric analysis was used to determined the reactivity pattern on lymphocyte subsets: 88.92% +/- 7.30% of CD4+ lymphocytes were 42.3H2-positive, while 85.99% +/- 11.46% of CD8+ cells were positive (n = 11 for both). B lymphocytes had the highest reactivity (99.47% +/- 0.45; n = 9) and also had the highest fluorescence intensity. By gating based on light scatter properties, 95.06% +/- 7.35% of monocytes were 42.3H2-reactive (n = 18), while granulocytes were negative.

The person who is undergoing surgery for the creation of an ileostomy may have had extensive and unsuccessful medical management but should have a successful surgical outcome. A well-constructed and sited stoma accompanied by diligent, competent, and compassionate nursing management and education will insure this outcome. Information is vital in all stages of the process. Preoperative information needs to center around the nature of the surgery and the expected post-operative course. Once the information needs are met, the nurse can concentrate on the emotional support required. Preoperatively, the patient becomes dependent on health care providers to meet all of his needs. He requires patience, understanding, and repeated explanations to allay his apprehension and anxiety. Postoperatively, the patient needs information on self-care techniques and emotional support to adjust to his new method of toileting. He needs assistance to "accept" the new arrangement and incorporate it into his self-image and lifestyle. Long-term, the patient needs information about possible complications, the need for lifelong medical monitoring, and the availability of support services in his community. By physically preparing the patient for self-care and discharge, the nurse can gently ease him onto the road to independence and a new lease on life.