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This chapter brings together ideas on resilience, from biology and psychology, to describe a single integrated system of homeostatic control for subjective wellbeing (SWB). SWB is a composite variable containing both emotion and mood. The emotion serves to inform the brain about relevant changes in the internal (interoceptive) and external environments. The mood component is characterised as a composite of the three affects: happy, content, and alert. These combine to form homeostatically protected mood (HPMood), which is the phenotype of a genetically determined process. HPMood exists as a weak, background effect that is present in all thoughts about the self, including SWB. Its purpose is to maintain a positive outlook in consciousness, and its level is unchanging within a narrow range around a setpoint for each person. It is proposed that understanding subjective wellbeing homeostasis is central to understanding sustainable wellbeing for humankind.

Mindfulness is an ancient practice, derived from Buddhism and recently adapted for the treatment of depression and other psychological conditions. The mechanism of action is thought to involve the extinction of habitual or conditioned responses to internal cognitive and emotional content. In turn, this relies on mechanisms of attentional control and emotion regulation. The resulting state of consciousness is sometimes described as equanimity. This conceptual review paper explores the process of achieving equanimity within a homeostatic framework. The result is a model of moodfulness, which combines mindfulness with Homeostatically Protected Mood to provide a new theoretical view of recovery from symptoms of depression. This model presents a case for mindfulness restoration of mood homeostasis following homeostatic defeat.

Quality of life can be measured both objectively, by frequencies and quantities, and subjectively through feelings. The subjective dimension is the most difficult to measure and the topic of this review. Subjective wellbeing is commonly measured by asking how “happy” or “satisfied” people feel on a standardized set of questions. One crucial requirement is that these questions are the same for everyone, whether they have a disability or not. This ensures equivalent standards for judging high and low life quality. The Personal Wellbeing Index meets these requirements. It contains seven items, three of which form the “Golden Domain Triangle” as satisfaction with money, relationships, and achieving in life. These three “Golden Domains” represent the key resources supporting life quality for both disabled and non-disabled people. For service provision to be maximally effective in facilitating life quality, it should target sufficiency in these areas.

Despite the established effectiveness of reminiscence-based interventions for depression, little research exists into the pathways through which specific reminiscence functions are related to depressive symptoms. Drawing on theory of the mechanisms of change in cognitive-reminiscence therapy, the current study tests the hypothesised indirect associations of adaptive integrative and instrumental reminiscence functions with depressive symptoms and whether these relationships might differ among younger and older adults. Questionnaires were completed by a large community sample of the Australian population. Multiple mediation models were tested in two groups: younger adults (n = 730, M age = 52.24, SD = 9.84) and older adults (n = 725, M age= 73.59, SD = 6.29). Results were consistent across age groups, indicating that there was no direct relationship between these reminiscence functions and depressive symptoms, but that integrative reminiscence is indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through meaning in life, self-esteem, and optimism, and that instrumental reminiscence is indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through primary control and self-efficacy. This study provides support for the relationships between constructs underlying the proposed mechanisms of change in cognitive-reminiscence therapy for the treatment of depression, and suggests these relationships are similar for younger and older adults.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a common and debilitating disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Psychological distress is highly comorbid to IBD, especially during periods of active disease. However, a controversy exists on how to best manage its symptoms in the IBD population. This study aimed to explore protective and risk factors of psychological distress in IBD. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted via social media and online patient forums. Respondents (N = 235) filled out questionnaires on demographics, health characteristics and a range of psychological variables. Measures of pain, disease activity, comorbid functional symptom severity, social support, subjective wellbeing, sleep quality, fatigue, stress, age, BMI and gender were entered into the Classification and Regression Tree Analysis model. Overall, 87 participants (37%) reported distress. Self-reported stress significantly discriminated between cases of probable psychological distress. In those with high stress, patients with and without probable psychological distress were separated by subjective wellbeing. Among patients with low stress, fatigue was the primary discriminator. Monitoring patients for low subjective wellbeing and high stress in clinical settings could offer an opportunity to engage in early intervention to limit psychological distress development. Monitoring for fatigue in patients who seem otherwise psychologically well could offer preventative benefits.

Subjective life quality comprises feelings which can only be experienced by each individual person. So the search for commonality within such feelings at a population level, and the process of measurement validation, is surely one of the most challenging areas for the social sciences. Ruut Veenhoven has contributed mightily to such understanding through his creation of a major public resource for fellow scholars, as the World Database of Happiness. In addition, his training as a sociologist has guided his research into such topics as the livability of society and the ways that culture shapes societal attitudes to happiness. Running parallel and complementary to this work, is another line of research which has a more individual-level focus on happiness. This research concerns issues of psychological measurement, most particularly involving domain-based scales, and their theoretical consequences for understanding the subjective wellbeing construct. From this research has evolved the Theory of Subjective Wellbeing Homeostasis and the three ‘golden domains’, which represent the key resources supporting homeostasis.

Background Caregivers play a pivotal role in maintaining an economically viable health care system, yet they are characterized by low levels of psychological well-being and consistently report unmet needs for psychological support. Mobile app–based (mobile health [mHealth]) interventions present a novel approach to both reducing stress and improving well-being. Objective This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a self-guided mobile app–based psychological intervention for people providing care to family or friends with a physical or mental disability. Methods In a randomized, single-blind, controlled trial, 183 caregivers recruited through the web were randomly allocated to either an intervention (n=73) or active control (n=110) condition. The intervention app contained treatment modules combining daily self-monitoring with third-wave (mindfulness-based) cognitive-behavioral therapies, whereas the active control app contained only self-monitoring features. Both programs were completed over a 5-week period. It was hypothesized that intervention app exposure would be associated with decreases in depression, anxiety, and stress, and increases in well-being, self-esteem, optimism, primary and secondary control, and social support. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, postintervention, and 3-4 months postintervention. App quality was also assessed. Results In total, 25% (18/73) of the intervention participants were lost to follow-up at 3 months, and 30.9% (34/110) of the participants from the wait-list control group dropped out before the postintervention survey. The intervention group experienced reductions in stress (b=−2.07; P=.04) and depressive symptoms (b=−1.36; P=.05) from baseline to postintervention. These changes were further enhanced from postintervention to follow-up, with the intervention group continuing to report lower levels of depression (b=−1.82; P=.03) and higher levels of emotional well-being (b=6.13; P Conclusions This study demonstrates that mHealth psychological interventions are an effective treatment option for caregivers experiencing high levels of stress. Recommendations for improving mHealth interventions for caregivers include offering flexibility and customization in the treatment design. Trial Registration Australian New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry ACTRN12616000996460; https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=371170

This manuscript provides systematic insight into the automatic correlations between positively-valenced, self-report variables that are typically used to measure subjective wellbeing. The theoretical basis for this study is the Theory of Subjective Wellbeing Homeostasis. This theory, in turn, rests on: (1) an assumption of genetically-determined set-points for subjective wellbeing and, (2) the existence of a composite affect, called Homeostatically Protected Mood (HPMood), as the phenotypic product of each set-point. HPMood perfuses all self-report variables to an extent predicted by each variable’s relationship to the self on the dimensions of proximal-distal and abstract-specific. Because HPMood is an individual difference, the extent of perfusion shared by any two variables strongly influences the magnitude of their correlation. These assumptions are empirically tested through six hypotheses, using data from two, independent, general population samples of Australian respondents. The results generally support the predictions of homeostasis theory and draw attention to the potential for HPMood to be a biasing – yet theoretically predictable factor in self-report data.

It is generally assumed that if a sample represents its broader population on key demographic variables, the data it yields will also be representative. Here we present evidence to suggest that this is not necessarily so when subjective wellbeing is measured from participants recruited through online panels. Using data from six countries: Australia, Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, UK and USA, we reveal significant differences in subjective wellbeing between online panel data and nationally representative data, even though both are demographically comparable. These findings indicate that the online panels comprised an abnormally high proportion of people with low subjective wellbeing, thus rendering their data non-representative. Given the widespread use of online panels to collect data in the modern era, we issue a caveat emptor.

The comparison of subjective well-being scores across countries is increasingly being used as an indicator of societal progress. In this study we examined measurement invariance for the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI), which measures subjective well-being, across Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia. The sample included a total of 5275 adult participants. Initially, the single-factor model of the PWI showed an adequate fit to the data only in Australia. Due to a poor fit in the remaining three countries we decided to test the single-factor structure on an abbreviated version of the scale. In order to shorten the PWI, we excluded two items (satisfactions with community-connectedness and future security) which demonstrated the lowest unique value in predicting global life satisfaction. The single-factor structure of the 5-item PWI (PWI-5) was supported in all four countries. Measurement invariance testing supported the partial scalar invariance of the PWI-5, thus allowing for latent mean comparisons. Latent mean analysis indicated higher life satisfaction in Australia, as compared with the other three countries. The PWI-5 correlated highly with the full scale. These findings suggest that the 5-item version of the PWI may be more suitable for cross-cultural comparisons.

It seems intuitive that people who have a neurodevelopmental disorder, such as stuttering, must experience a low subjective life quality. Yet this is not necessarily so. The relationship between medical pathology and perceived life quality is not linear. It is dependent on the balance between severity of the challenge associated with the disorder and the resilience of the homeostatic system, which manages subjective well-being. This article examines the nature of this interaction, using subjective well-being as the dependent variable under consideration. The processes of subjective well-being homeostasis are described and the evidence supporting such a system, most especially the existence of subjective well-being set points, is provided. Homeostatic resilience is highly dependent on the resources available for homeostatic defense, and three kinds of resources forming the “Golden Triangle” are pre-eminent. These comprise money, achieving in life, and relationships. If these resources are sufficiently strong, homeostasis will successfully defend normal levels of subjective well-being even in the face of quite severe threat. This explains why neurodevelopmental disorders do not automatically lower subjective life quality. The Golden Triangle resources point to the nature of the most effective interventions designed to bolster homeostatic resilience.

It has recently been claimed that Sen’s capabilities approach can be used to advise the formation of public policy related to human wellbeing. It has also been proposed that measures of subjective wellbeing are inadequate for this purpose. These ideas are examined in relation to capabilities, using the same reference material as the proposing author. The theory of subjective wellbeing homeostasis is used as the alternative framework by which to understand the potential of subjective wellbeing for policy advice. This examination reveals an almost complete lack of evidence that capability measurement could fulfill the suggested role. While subjective wellbeing has more potential for this purpose, caveats to its employment for policy advice are also evident.

The past 2 decades have seen increasing use of experience sampling methods (ESMs) to gain insights into the daily experience of affective states (e.g., its variability, as well as antecedents and consequences of temporary shifts in affect). Much less attention has been given to methodological challenges, such as how to ensure reliability of test scores obtained using ESM. The present study demonstrates the use of dynamic factor analysis (DFA) to quantify reliability of test scores in ESM contexts, evaluates the potential impact of unreliable test scores, and seeks to identify characteristics of individuals that may account for their unreliable test scores. One hundred twenty-seven participants completed baseline measures (demographics and personality traits), followed by a 7-day ESM phase in which positive and negative state affect were measured up to 6 times per day. Analyses showed that although at the sample level, scores on these affect measures exhibited adequate levels of reliability, up to one third of participants failed to meet conventional standards of reliability. Where these low reliability estimates were not significantly associated with personality factors, they could-in some cases-be explained by model misspecification where a meaningful alternative structure was available. Despite these potential differences in factor structure across participants, subsequent modeling with and without these "unreliable" cases showed similar substantive results. Hence, the present findings suggest typical analyses based on ESM data may be robust to individual differences in data structure and/or quality. Ways to augment the DFA approach to better understand unreliable cases are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

The usefulness of subjective wellbeing (SWB) as a social indicator rests on understanding what controls its level when measured through self-report data. While the theory of SWB homeostasis provides a cogent explanatory framework for the control processes, this theory relies on set-points, and direct evidence for their existence rests on a single study. Cummins et al. (J Happiness Stud 15:183–206, 2014. doi: 10.1007/s10902-013-9444-9) demonstrated a normal range of set-points between 71 and 90 points on a 0–100 scale, using data on global life satisfaction (GLS). These findings are consistent with homeostasis theory, which proposes that set-points account for the normal positivity of SWB while its stability is accounted for by homeostatic processes. The current paper extends the first report in two ways. First, by replicating the range of set-points using a different data set. Second, by extending the findings to homeostatically protected mood (HPMood), which is proposed to be the basic psychological molecule that homeostasis seeks to protect. Participants completed between 5 and 10 surveys. Data preparation involved the iterative elimination of scores based on significant deviation from their over-time mean score. It is confirmed that GLS and HPMood set-points are both normally distributed between 75 and 90 points. These results offer further support for the usefulness of SWB as a social indicator.

BACKGROUND Caregivers play a pivotal role in maintaining an economically viable health care system, yet they are characterized by low levels of psychological well-being and consistently report unmet needs for psychological support. Mobile app–based (mobile health [mHealth]) interventions present a novel approach to both reducing stress and improving well-being. OBJECTIVE This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a self-guided mobile app–based psychological intervention for people providing care to family or friends with a physical or mental disability. METHODS In a randomized, single-blind, controlled trial, 183 caregivers recruited through the web were randomly allocated to either an intervention (n=73) or active control (n=110) condition. The intervention app contained treatment modules combining daily self-monitoring with third-wave (mindfulness-based) cognitive-behavioral therapies, whereas the active control app contained only self-monitoring features. Both programs were completed over a 5-week period. It was hypothesized that intervention app exposure would be associated with decreases in depression, anxiety, and stress, and increases in well-being, self-esteem, optimism, primary and secondary control, and social support. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, postintervention, and 3-4 months postintervention. App quality was also assessed. RESULTS In total, 25% (18/73) of the intervention participants were lost to follow-up at 3 months, and 30.9% (34/110) of the participants from the wait-list control group dropped out before the postintervention survey. The intervention group experienced reductions in stress (b=−2.07; P=.04) and depressive symptoms (b=−1.36; P=.05) from baseline to postintervention. These changes were further enhanced from postintervention to follow-up, with the intervention group continuing to report lower levels of depression (b=−1.82; P=.03) and higher levels of emotional well-being (b=6.13; Pb=0.78; P=.007), self-esteem (b=−0.84; P=.005), support from family (b=2.15; P=.001), support from significant others (b=2.66; Pb=4.82; P CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that mHealth psychological interventions are an effective treatment option for caregivers experiencing high levels of stress. Recommendations for improving mHealth interventions for caregivers include offering flexibility and customization in the treatment design. CLINICALTRIAL Australian New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry ACTRN12616000996460; https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=371170

The personal well-being index—school children (PWI-SC) is designed as a cross-cultural instrument to measure subjective well-being among high school–aged children. Several published cross-cultural studies have confirmed adequate psychometric performance in terms of reliability, validity, and measurement invariance. This study adds to this literature by applying the Rasch approach to estimate invariant comparison in a cross-cultural context, applied to both Australian and Portuguese high school students. Participants were an age- and gender-matched convenience sample of 1,040 adolescents (520 cases in each group, 51.54% male) who ranged in age from 12 to 18 years ( M = 14.25 years, SD = 1.71 years). It is found that both Portuguese and Australian data fit the Rasch measurement model, with excellent levels of reliability at a country level. However, when all of the data were combined, a slight misfit was found. This was resolved by removing some issues with item thresholds in standard of living among the Australian data and splitting the data by country on health. This allowed both Australian and Portuguese cases to differ on the health item. We conclude that the PWI-SC is unidimensional, with some evidence of mild, but acceptable local dependency. This study further supports the cross-cultural validity of the PWI-SC and the use of this measure in the Australian and Portuguese context but also indicates a potential direction that development of the PWI-SC might proceed.

When authors describe ‘utility’ according to Bentham (An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Doubleday, Garden City, 1780), their usual interpretation is in terms of happiness linked to monetary wealth. However, Bentham was a legally-trained philosopher, not an economist, and his actual description of utility shows a far more nuanced meaning. He appreciated that life quality exists in two dimensions, objective and subjective, and recognized the uncertain relationship of these dimensions to one another. Monetary wealth does not equate with happiness, either for Bentham or within contemporary psychological science. This chapter concerns present-day understanding of this wealth-happiness interaction, informed by the Theory of Subjective Wellbeing Homeostasis. Homeostasis theory provides an explanatory model for predicting the way objective measures of life quality, including money, interact with the subjective experience of trait happiness. One aspect of this understanding involves identifying the key forms of wealth supporting homeostasis. Through the use of multiple regression, these are revealed as money, an intimate relationship, and having an active life purpose. These three homeostatic resources form the ‘Golden Triangle’ of happiness.

Published data that describe the subjective well-being (SWB) of Indigenous people across Australia are scarce. This study reports differences in the SWB of 3 sample groups–mainstream Australian adults, Indigenous adolescents, and non-Indigenous adolescents–in 5 geographic areas classified by remoteness. Both groups of adolescents were participating in a national program for disengaged youth. Consistent with results from general population samples, the SWB for people living in rural centers was higher than for those in either major cities or very remote areas. This suggests that there may be an optimum size of community that acts as a buffer to the well-being of both Indigenous and non-Indigenous adolescents and adults. This may be achieved through greater community connection, as well as having a reasonable level of amenities available. The results of this study are likely relevant to Indigenous populations in other countries, and the implications of these findings for service delivery are discussed.

My essay contributes to the 50-year celebration of Bauer’s ‘Social Indicators’ by examining the progress of subjective social indicators. It begins with a description of how the three contributors to this volume, Bauer, Biderman and Gross, viewed subjective indicators, and then examines developments to the present. Of special interest is subjective wellbeing, most particularly as it is understood through the theory of subjective wellbeing homeostasis. The theory is described and the potential use of subjective wellbeing as an indicator, relevant to the development of public policy, is described. I conclude that it is timely for national statistical agencies to consider the adoption of a scale to measure subjective wellbeing.

Research is scarce concerning the validity of subjective wellbeing measures for children aged 12 years and less. There are even fewer subjective wellbeing data for children with complex backgrounds and personal circumstances and those experiencing socio-demographic disadvantage. This study compares the psychometric properties of the child and adult versions of the Personal Wellbeing Index. Participants were 1761 ‘at-risk’ children aged 10–12 years, and 2000 geographically representative Australian adults. While there was sufficient fit with a one-factor structure, the reliability estimates were lower in the child sample and the incidence of response bias was significantly higher. Collectively, these findings suggest caution in the use of subjective wellbeing measures with children.

Professor Etzioni argues that ‘happiness’ is ‘the wrong metric’ as a measure of a good society. He argues from the perspective of Communitarian Philosophy and uses two kinds of happiness evidence. One is correlational results from survey data and the other concerns ‘self-actualization’ as the highest-order need proposed by Maslow. Unfortunately, both kinds of evidence are flawed for this purpose. First, contemporary understanding of happiness allows a different perspective from the one depicted. Second, correlational results from cross-sectional studies cannot be used to conclude causation. Third, the construct of self-actualization has been discredited as having scientific validity. Overall, Etzioni’s argument rests on an outdated conception of happiness and the invalid interpretation of scientific evidence. It is concluded that happiness is the right metric by which to judge a successful society, as long as the nature of measured happiness is understood.

The scientific study of 'wellbeing' involves both objective and subjective variables. While objective wellbeing can be simply measured as tangible aspects of the living environment, measuring subjective wellbeing involves quantifying self-reported feelings. Although reliable and valid measures can be achieved, in a cross-cultural context differences in language and culture present formidable challenges to measurement comparability. This Element begins by describing the behaviour of subjective wellbeing in single cultures, using the theory of homeostasis. Robert A. Cummins then discusses cross-cultural differences in subjective wellbeing, with a focus on measurement invariance as a means of ensuring the validity of comparative results. Cummins proposes that the major barrier to creating such comparability of measurement is a pervasive response bias that differs between cultures. He concludes that current instruments are inadequate to provide valid cross-cultural measures of subjective wellbeing, and that suitable measures may be created as short forms of current scales.

The idea, ‘exercise is good for you’, is so ingrained in Western thinking it has the status of lore. Moreover, since the time of the Romans, this belief has applied to both physical and mental health: A healthy mind in a healthy body. But is exercise really good for subjective wellbeing and, if so, why? While the general impression conveyed by the quality of life literature is that the aphorism does indeed apply to subjective wellbeing, looks can be deceiving. In fact, much of the supportive literature is based on methodologically weak studies presented in the absence of testable theory. This essay examines the literature from a critical methodological perspective coupled with current understanding of subjective wellbeing. Central to this examination is the theory of subjective wellbeing homeostasis. The view that emerges is one where the positive relationship between physical activity and subjective wellbeing is due mainly to facilitated social relationships. The implications of this understanding for the enhancement of life quality are substantial.

The quality of life of people with end stage kidney disease (ESKD) has traditionally been measured using instruments that emphasise objective health status. The present study validates an alternative measure, the Personal Wellbeing Index (PWI), which measures subjective wellbeing. An Australian ESKD sample (N = 172, Mean age = 64.04, SD = 14.82) completed the PWI as well as health-specific quality of life measures. The PWI was subject to confirmatory factor analysis, and a series of regressions and between-group comparisons were performed to reveal that it is a psychometrically appropriate measure for this sample. The PWI and health-specific measures each yield different and complementary results. Thus, the PWI is proposed as a complement to existing health-related quality of life tools, in order to broaden understanding of the patient's subjective experience. The resulting profile is argued to better inform targeted interventions to improve the quality of life of people with ESKD.

This article introduces the subjective side of quality of life as it has evolved within the discipline of psychology. Subjective well-being is also of special interest within medicine due to its links to pathology and the fact that it is managed by a homeostatic system. This form of management offers an explanation for the unusual properties of subjective well-being, including its normal positivity, stability, and nonlinear relationship to objective variables, such as physical health. Central to understanding is the proposition that subjective well-being mainly consists of a specific form of trait mood. This homeostatically protected mood has a genetic set point and it is the experience of this set-point mood that homeostasis is defending. The resources required to maintain normal homeostatic control are described. If these resources are inadequate to protect the experience of set-point mood, mood positivity falls, and there is a high probability of depression. In this article, the process of homeostasis is shown to assist understanding of intervention effectiveness within both psychology and medicine. This concerns matters of resilience, the nonlinear relationship between levels of subjective well-being, and the strength of challenging agents, and the important understanding that interventions designed to raise subjective well-being are critically dependent on its level at baseline. Key teaching points: The physiological process of homeostasis has a parallel in psychology in the homeostatic management of subjective well-being. Subjective well-being is a more globally informative construct than health-related quality of life. How people feel about themselves and their lives cannot be simply predicted through measures of health. When subjective well-being homeostasis is defeated, there is a high probability of depression.

The role of positive irrational beliefs (positive cognitive illusions) in mental health has been debated over several decades. The measurement of such beliefs has usually been through inferential assessment, which has been heavily criticised. This paper sought to establish a measure for the direct assessment of such beliefs and to assess their relationship to subjective wellbeing (SWB). Over two studies this new measure was found to have a factor structure consistent with its design, assessing self-enhancing beliefs, beliefs rejecting imperfection, overly optimistic beliefs, and irrational beliefs of control. When combined, these beliefs account for 17.6 % of the variance with SWB. This is driven largely by a higher order factor, which demonstrates a positive relationship to SWB. However, individually the different types of irrational beliefs demonstrate a variety of relationships with SWB. It is therefore concluded that positive irrational beliefs, when directly assessed, provide a greater depth of information than they do when assessed inferentially.