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This article discusses the electrodiagnostic assessment of radiculopathy. Relevant anatomy initially is reviewed followed by discussion surrounding the approach to nerve conduction studies and needle electrode examination when it comes to radiculopathy evaluation. Pitfalls of the electrodiagnosis versus clinical diagnosis of radiculopathy and the definitions of acute versus chronic, and active versus inactive, are reviewed.

Objectives: To evaluate the safety of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) therapy in patients with infective endocarditis (IE) with intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) or endovascular therapy (EVT) such as mechanical thrombectomy. Methods: We conducted a retrospective study of patients who underwent AIS therapy with IVT or EVT at a tertiary referral center from 2013 to 2017, that were later diagnosed with acute IE as the causative mechanism. We then performed a systematic review of reports of acute ischemic reperfusion therapy in IE since 1995 for their success rates in terms of neurological outcome, and mortality, and their risk of hemorrhagic complication. Results: In the retrospective portion, 8 participants met criteria, of whom 4 received IVT and 4 received EVT. Through systematic review, 24 publications of 32 participants met criteria. Combined, a total of 40 participants were analyzed: 18 received IVT alone, 1 received combined IVT plus EVT, and 21 received EVT alone. IVT compared to EVT were similar in rates of good neurologic outcomes (58% versus 76%, P= .22) and mortality (21% versus 19%, P= .87), but had higher post-therapy intracranial hemorrhage (63% versus 18% [P= .006]). Conclusion: IV thrombolysis has a higher rate of post-therapy intracranial hemorrhage compared to EVT. EVT should be considered as first-line AIS therapy for patients with known, or suspected, IE who present with a large vessel occlusion.

Objective To evaluate the association between malignancy and frequently positive paraneoplastic antibodies. Methods A retrospective cohort study was carried out for all patients who received paraneoplastic antibody testing in 2013–2014 at a tertiary referral center. Available medical records on included patients were reviewed through July 2020. Patients were divided into antibody positive and negative subgroups. Focused analysis was performed on the subgroup of patients who received testing via a commonly used antibody panel. Results A total of 1860 patients (the full cohort) received 19,323 antibody testing via panel or individual antibody testing, and were followed-up for a mean period of 36.2 months (range 0–83 months). Altogether 229 antibodies in 196 patients were positive, and 9 (3.9%) in 7 patients were against onconeuronal antigens. The remaining 220 (96.1%) were positive for mostly antibodies against cell surface or synaptic antigens. A total of 1161 patients received Mayo Clinic paraneoplastic antibody panel tests (the panel cohort), and 14.9% (173) of these patients possessed one or more positive antibodies. For the panel cohort, no difference was found between antibody positive and negative groups with respect to the prevalence of previously existing malignancy (15.6% versus 16.6%, p = 0.745) or incidence of new malignancy (4.0% vs. 3.7%, p = 0.848) during the follow-up period. No difference was observed in the incidence of new malignancy during follow-up between the antibody positive and negative groups for the 7 most frequently positive antibodies. Conclusions The presence of frequently positive antibodies, mostly to cell surface or synaptic antigens, is not clearly associated with the development of malignancy in the subsequent three years.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Ischaemic and hemorrhagic strokes are dreaded complications of infective endocarditis (IE). The timing of valve surgery for IE patients with stroke remains uncertain. The aim was to study perioperative neurological complications in relation to surgical timing. METHODS The study cohort consisted of patients diagnosed with acute IE from January 2010 to December 2016. Early surgery was defined as valve surgery within 14 days of IE diagnosis, and late surgery as after 14 days. Neurological complications that occurred within 14 days post-surgery were considered perioperative and classified as new ischaemic stroke or hemorrhagic stroke, expansion of an existing intracranial hemorrhage and new-onset seizures. Perioperative neurological complications were compared by surgical timing and other variables, including pre-surgical imaging. RESULTS Overall, 183 patients underwent valve surgery: 92 had early surgery at a median of 8 days (interquartile range 6-11); 91 had late surgery at a median of 28 days (interquartile range 19-50). Twenty patients (10.9%) had 24 complications: 11 ischaemic, six intraparenchymal hemorrhages, three subarachnoid hemorrhages (SAHs) and four new-onset seizures. Rates of neurological complications were similar for early and late surgery groups (10.9% vs. 11%). Enterococcal IE was more common amongst patients with perioperative neurological complications (35% vs. 12.3%, P

OBJECTIVES To evaluate the clinical, laboratory, and radiological features of 4 cases of biopsy-proven lymphomatous lumbosacral radiculoplexopathy. METHODS Retrospective chart review. RESULTS All patients suffered from diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. A mean diagnostic delay of 10 months was encountered. Presenting symptoms in all 4 patients included back pain, radicular leg pain, and leg weakness, similar to spondylotic radiculopathy. Electrodiagnostic study showed axon loss radiculoplexopathy and magnetic resonance imaging of the lumbar spine or pelvis demonstrated nerve or nerve root enhancement. Increased uptake by lumbosacral roots/plexus on fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography aided diagnosis in 3 cases. Cytology was positive in 1 of 10 cerebrospinal fluid samples. Combined chemotherapy and radiation treatment led to clinicoradiological improvement, with residual neurological symptoms in all patients. CONCLUSIONS Lymphomatous lumbosacral radiculoplexopathy should be considered in patients with progressive lumbosacral radicular symptoms. Magnetic resonance imaging and fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography, but not cerebrospinal fluid, are helpful in achieving early diagnosis. Treatment responses seem favorable.

Noncontact sports are associated with a variety of neurologic injuries. Concussion, vascular injury (arterial dissection), and spinal cord trauma may be less common in noncontact sports, but require special attention from the sports neurologist. Complex regional pain disorders, muscle injury from repetitive use, dystonia, heat exposure, and vascular disorders (patent foramen ovale), occur with similar frequency in noncontact and contact sports. Management of athletes with these conditions requires an understanding of the neurologic consequences of these disorders, the risk of injury with return to play, and consideration for the benefits of exercise in health restoration and disease prevention.

Background: Infectious intracranial aneurysm (IIA) can complicate infective endocarditis (IE). We aimed to describe the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) characteristics of IIA. Methods: We reviewed IIAs among 116 consecutive patients with active IE by conducting a neurological evaluation at a single tertiary referral center from January 2015 to July 2016. MRIs and digital cerebral angiograms (DSA) were reviewed to identify MRI characteristics of IIAs. MRI susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) was performed to collect data on cerebral microbleeds (CMBs) and sulcal SWI lesions. Results: Out of 116 persons, 74 (63.8%) underwent DSA. IIAs were identified in 13 (17.6% of DSA, 11.2% of entire cohort) and 10 patients with aneurysms underwent MRI with SWI sequence. Nine (90%) out of 10 persons with IIAs had CMB >5 mm or sulcal lesions in SWI (9 in sulci, 6 in parenchyma, and 5 in both). Five out of 8 persons who underwent MRI brain with contrast had enhancement within the SWI lesions. In a multivariate logistic regression analysis, both sulcal SWI lesions (p < 0.001, OR 69, 95% CI 7.8-610) and contrast enhancement (p = 0.007, OR 16.5, 95% CI 2.3-121) were found to be significant predictors of the presence of IIAs. Conclusions: In the individuals with IE who underwent DSA and MRI, we found that neuroimaging characteristics, such as sulcal SWI lesion with or without contrast enhancement, are associated with the presence of IIA

Introduction Infectious intracranial aneurysm (IIA, or mycotic aneurysm) is a cerebrovascular complication of infective endocarditis. We aimed to describe the clinical course of IIAs during antibiotic treatment. Methods We reviewed medical records of persons with infective endocarditis who underwent cerebral angiography at a single tertiary referral center from 2011 to 2016. Aneurysms were followed with subsequent angiography for unfavorable outcome (growth, rupture, no change, or new IIA formation) or favorable outcome (regression or resolution) until endovascular therapy, aneurysm resolution, or end of observation. Results Of 618 patients included, 40 (6.5%) had 43 IIAs. Eighteen (42%) aneurysms underwent initial endovascular treatment. Twenty-five unruptured aneurysms were followed for a median 18 antibiotic days after IIA discovery (interquartile range [IQR] 4–32). Eleven (44%) aneurysms had unfavorable outcome (1 rupture, 2 new IIA formation, 6 enlargement, and 2 no change) at median 21 days (IQR 5–32). Favorable angiographic outcome was seen in 7 (28%) patients (6 resolution, 1 regression) at median 36 days (IQR 24–41). Seven aneurysms had no angiographic reevaluations but showed no evidence of rupture during clinical follow-up for median 4 days (IQR 3–12) until hospital discharge. Saccular morphology was associated with unfavorable aneurysmal outcome (p = 0.013). Longer duration of antibiotic exposure prior to IIA discovery was associated with favorable aneurysmal outcome (p = 0.046). Conclusion IIAs represent a dynamic disease. Only a quarter of IIAs resolve with antibiotics alone. Saccular aneurysmal morphology might predict unfavorable aneurysmal outcome. IIA found after longer antibiotic therapy has higher likelihood of resolution or regression on antibiotic treatment.

Background: MRI features such as cerebral microbleeds and sulcal susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) or gradient-echo T2* (GRE-T2*) lesions have been reported to be associated with the presence of infectious intracranial aneurysm (IIA) in infective endocarditis (IE). We aimed to describe the MRI imaging features that predict the presence of IIA. Methods: The derivation cohort comprised 116 IE patients with neurological evaluation at a single tertiary referral center from January 2015 to July 2016. The MRI predictors associated with IIA was evaluated, and we developed the MRI imaging predictors and assessed sensitivity and specificity. External validation was performed in a cohort of 129 IE patients who underwent digital subtraction angiogram (DSA) at the same center from 2010-2014. We assessed the validity using a receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC). Results: Of 116 IE patients in the derivation cohort, 10 (9%) had IIAs. Of 129 in the validation cohort, 19 (15%) IIAs were identified. The MRI imaging predictors for IIA consist of 1) contrast enhancement with SWI lesions, 2) cerebral microbleeds > 5mm plus sulcal SWI lesions, and 3) any MRI hemorrhages. The sensitivity for the presence of IIA in each group of the derivation cohort was: 90%, 80%, and 100%, respectively. The sensitivity in the validation cohort was: 47%, 68%, and 94% respectively. The specificity in the derivation cohort was: 87%, 85%, and 18%. In the validation cohort, the specificity was similar (87%, 75%, and 27%). Conclusions: The suggested MRI imaging predictors can be used as a sensitive and specific tool to support clinical decision-making, especially when invasive DSA is considered for assessment for presence of IIA. The absence of MRI hemorrhages may not necessitate the need for DSA.

Background and purpose Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features such as cerebral microbleeds and sulcal susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) or gradient-echo T2* lesions in infective endocarditis (IE) have been associated with the presence of infectious intracranial aneurysm (IIA). Our aim was to validate these MRI predictors for IIA in order to better assist in assessing the appropriate indications for digital subtraction angiography (DSA). Methods The derivation cohort comprised IE patients with neurological evaluation, MRI and DSA at a single tertiary referral center from January 2015 to July 2016. Validation was performed in a cohort of IE patients who underwent MRI and DSA at the same center from 2010 to 2014. Results Of 62 patients in the derivation cohort, 10 (16%) had IIAs. Of 129 in the validation cohort, 19 (15%) IIAs were identified. The MRI predictors for IIA consist of (i) contrast enhancement with microbleeds, (ii) cerebral microbleeds >5 mm or sulcal SWI lesions and (iii) any MRI hemorrhages. The sensitivity for the presence of IIA in each group of the derivation cohort was 90%, 80% and 100%, respectively. The sensitivity in the validation cohort was 47%, 68% and 94% respectively. The specificity in the derivation cohort was 87%, 85% and 18%. In the validation cohort, the specificity was similar at 87%, 75% and 27%. Conclusions The absence of MRI hemorrhages may not necessitate the need for DSA.

Introduction: Acute ischemic stroke (AIS) is common in patients with infective endocarditis (IE). Use of IV thrombolytic therapy (IV-tPA) has been reported and appears to carry greater risk of hemorrhage, while reports of endovascular therapy are rare. We present two cases where these interventions were utilized. Methods: A retrospective review was done of 116 consecutive patients with IE who were seen by stroke neurology in a tertiary care center from January 2015 to July 2016. Two cases were identified in which acute stroke therapy was utilized, one case with IV-tPA and one case with endovascular thrombectomy. We searched PubMed from inception to August 2016 and systematic review was performed to evaluate acute stroke therapy in IE. Results: In case 1, an 82 year old female with prosthetic aortic valve endocarditis and atrial fibrillation presented with slurred speech and right hemiplegia. IV-tPA was given within 2.5 hours, and NIHSS improved from 11 to 1 over 24 hours. CT Brain done 24 hours post-tPA revealed a small L thalamic hemorrhage. In case 2, a 49 year old IV drug-using male with prior IE and current prosthetic aortic valve endocarditis developed right middle cerebral artery occlusion with an NIHSS 17. Endovascular thrombectomy was performed with successful TICI 3 recanalization. CT Brain done 24 hours post-thrombectomy showed evolving right middle cerebral artery infarct with hemorrhagic conversion. Systematic review revealed 7 reports of IV thrombolysis, 5 reports of mechanical thrombectomy, and 3 reports with intra-arterial thrombolysis plus endovascular thrombectomy. Including our cases, IV thrombolysis alone had a hemorrhagic complication rate of 82% (9 out of 11 patients). Endovascular thrombectomy alone, all reporting at least TICI IIb recanalization, had a hemorrhagic complication rate of 17% (1 out of 6 patients). Intra-arterial thrombolysis and endovascular thrombectomy together had a hemorrhagic complication rate of 0% (0 out of 3 patients). Conclusion: Endovascular thrombectomy alone appears to be safer than IV-tPA alone in the management of AIS in patients with IE.

Introduction: Infectious intracranial aneurysm (IIA) can complicate infective endocarditis (IE). We aim to describe the characteristics of IIA and to assess indications for cerebral angiography. Methods: We reviewed IIAs among 116 consecutive active IE by Duke’s criteria with neurological consultation or admission to stroke neurology service in a single tertiary referral center from January 2015 to July 2016. Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) hemorrhage was defined as low signal on SWI in sulci or parenchyma that was not apparent on CT. Results: Of 116 patients, 74 persons (63.8%, mean age of 54) underwent digital subtraction angiography (DSA). IIAs were identified in 13 (17.6%). All of 13 IIAs were unruptured and only one IIA had unrelated intracranial hemorrhage on CT. None of the IIA was seen with CTA or MRA. Eleven (85%) IIAs had clinical strokes (10 ischemic strokes, 1 intracerebral hemorrhage, median NIH stroke scale 3), and 2 neurologically asymptomatic with abnormal MRI. Six of 9 IIAs had SWI hemorrhage in sulci or parenchyma (5 in sulci, 5 in parenchyma, and 1 in both) and all of the lesions were in the vicinity of IIA. Contrast MRI was performed in 7 IIAs, and 4 IIAs had enhancements, all of which were present near the location of IIAs. Ischemic stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, intravenous drug abuse, and type of valve were not associated with the presence of IIA. Of 13 IIAs, 3 remained on antibiotic alone, 5 had antibiotic with coil embolization, and, 5 had antibiotic with glue embolization. Ten patients with IIAs had valvular surgery, including one person with untreated IIA. Out of all patients with IIA, only one intracerebral hemorrhage occurred as perioperative complication unrelated to treated IIA. Conclusions: IIAs were found in approximately one fifth of IE persons who underwent DSA. Imaging characteristics such as SWI hemorrhage in sulci or parenchyma and contrast enhancement appear to correlate with the presence of IIA. DSA should be performed when they are present.

Introduction: Ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke often complicate infective endocarditis (IE). Optimal timing of surgical intervention for IE with stroke remains controversial. We compared neurological outcomes of early and delayed valve surgery for IE complicated by stroke. Methods: We reviewed 73 patients with acute IE by Duke Criteria who underwent brain imaging (CT, MRI, or cerebral angiogram) before valve operations between December 2014 and August 2016. Date of IE diagnosis was defined as date of antibiotic initiation. Early surgery was defined as valve replacement ≤14 days from date of IE diagnosis and delayed surgery as >14 days. Neurological complication is defined as delirium >72 hours after extubation and cessation of sedation, new ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke. Results: Among 73 patients who underwent valve replacement surgery, 71 had evidence of stroke on imaging: 54 patients with acute or subacute ischemic infarct, 9 patients with evidence of intracerebral hemorrhage, and 8 patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. The median time from IE diagnosis to surgery was 9 days. Forty patients had early surgery, and 33 patients had late surgery. Early surgery group had fewer patients with history of ischemic stroke (55% vs 79%, p=0.033), fewer acute or subacute infarcts on imaging (63% vs 88% p=0.016), but more native valve infections (73% vs 45%, p=0.018). The incidence of post-operative stroke was similar between both groups (2.5% vs 9%, p=0.32). In the delayed group, ischemic strokes occurred in 4 patients awaiting surgery. Hypertension and diabetes mellitus were associated with post-operative neurological complications (p Conclusion: In IE patients with acute stroke, early surgery does not appear to increase post-operative neurological complications.

Introduction: Ischemic stroke is a common complication of infective endocarditis (IE) and can delay valve surgery. Identifying risk factors for acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and hemorrhagic conversion may help in perioperative risk assessment of these patients. Methods: Retrospective analysis was done on 116 consecutive patients with IE seen by stroke neurology at a tertiary center from January 2015 through July 2016. Clinical and radiographic characteristics were collected in a population whose initial evaluation was for acute stroke management or preoperative risk evaluation. Descriptive statistics were used to identify risk factors for AIS, defined as clinical or silent infarct, both with and without hemorrhagic conversion. Results: Among 116 patients with IE, AIS occurred in 82 (70.6%) with a median NIH Stroke Scale of 3 (interquartile range (IQR) 0-12) and a median MRI volume of 13.5mL (IQR 1.4-42mL). Of AIS patients, 25 (30%) had silent infarct, 6 (7%) had concurrent primary ICH without a clear ischemic component and 25 (30%) had hemorrhagic conversion. AIS was associated with remote stroke on imaging (OR 1.27), history of diabetes (OR 1.22), and &gt 1 vegetation on echocardiogram (OR 1.29), but not history of atrial fibrillation, microhemorrhages or mycotic aneurysm on imaging, MRI enhancing lesions, aortic versus mitral valve involvement, vegetation size, organism involved, IV drug abuse, or pre-admission antithrombotic use. Microhemorrhages on MRI susceptibility-weighted images occurred in 66 (80%) AIS patients, and was associated with hemorrhagic conversion (OR 1.35). Mycotic aneurysm was found in 4 patients with hemorrhagic conversion, but this was not significant (OR 1.0). A total of 48 AIS patients (58.5%) underwent valve surgery. Additional stroke occurred while awaiting surgery in 10 AIS patients (OR 1.20), 6 were new ischemic stroke and 4 were new ICH. Post-operatively there were 1 new AIS and 3 new ICH complications. Conclusion: The incidence of acute ischemic stroke in our population was 70.6%, with a third being silent infarcts. Hemorrhagic conversion occurred in 30% and was associated with cerebral microhemorrhages.

Introduction: Intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) is common in infective endocarditis (IE). We explored the imaging characteristics, predictors, and clinical implications of ICHs including intraparenchymal hemorrhage (IPH), and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) and, subdural hematoma (SDH). Methods: We reviewed records of 116 consecutive acute IE patients by Duke’s criteria with neurological consultation or admission to stroke neurology service in a single tertiary referral center from January 2015 to July 2016. ICHs were defined as IPH, SAH, or SDH seen on CT. Microhemorrhages were identified on susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) on MRI. Patient’s radiographic characteristics and complications were collected. Results: Of 116 patients, 25 persons (21.6%, median age 58) had ICHs, 14 with IPHs, 7 with SAHs, 3 with both IPH and SAH, and 1 SDH. Of 17 (14.7%) IPHs (median NIH Stroke Scale 6 and median volume 38.6cc), 10 (8.6%) IPHs were symptomatic and 7 IPHs were silent. Eleven persons (65%) with IPH also had ischemic strokes. Mycotic aneurysms were identified only in 1 (4.8%) in 21 persons with ICH who underwent cerebral angiogram. MRIs identified 66 persons with microhemorrhages (56.9%, median age 58.5) among 85 who underwent MRI. Eighteen (72%) of 25 persons with ICHs had microhemorrhages in SWI. In multivariate logistic regression analysis, ICH was associated with the presence of >5 microhemorrhages (odds ratio [OR]: 1.25, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04-1.50) and staphylococcus aureus (OR: 1.25, 95% CI: 1.03-1.51). Ten persons (40%) with ICH died (7 with IPH and 4 with SAH) in the same hospitalization. Thirteen persons (52%) with ICH (median 21.4cc in 9 IPHs) underwent valve replacement at median of 13.5 days and 2 persons had new non-fatal strokes (1 IPH and 1 ischemic stroke). Conclusions: Intracranial macro- or micro-hemorrhages are seen in 73 (63%) persons with IE. The mortality of intracranial hemorrhage is high but the perioperative stroke risk appears low.