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The essential oil from Melaleuca leucadendra L. leaves has been widely used as a perfume and traditional remedy, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products ingredient since many years ago. The common technology to recover the oil is hydro-distillation and steam-distillation. However, all oil can not be fully extracted from the leaves by this method due to the recalcitrant structure of leaves that hindrance the access of the solvent. Adding a submerged fermentation as a pre-treatment step prior to the extraction process helped to loosen the lignocellulose structure and enhance oil release in the extraction process. In this study, the raw materials were collected from the natural forest in Buru Island, Maluku, Indonesia. The biological agents applied in these processes were Phanerochaete chrysosporium ITBCC136 and Trichoderma viride ITBCC143. The oil extraction process was conducted by method of steam-distillation, the oil was analysed using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), and the lignocellulose content in the biomass was measured by the fractionation method. The treatment using T.viride provided the highest increase in yield percentage up to 3.47% as compared with control of 1.45%, with the lowest percentages of the remained cellulose, while the fermentation with the presence of P.chrysosporium did not affect the oil yield even the lignin content was decrease as much as 21%. The percentages of 1, 8-cineole in the oil were almost unchanged, which was about 20% of the oil.

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential bioconversion of rice straw and tofu residue using larvae of Hermetia illucens assisted by microbes to produce protein-rich biomass and organic fertilizer. Larvae of Hermetia illucens were cultivated in rearing containers (25×20 cm) with three different types of substrate containing rice straw, tofu residue and solution containing consortium of microbes. The rice straw used in this study contains 22.1% hemicellulose, 30.3% cellulose, 8.0% lignin and 6.8% protein (weight basis) while the tofu residue contains 20.9% protein (weight basis). The substrate rate was set at 150 mg/larva/day and the ratio of rice straw: tofu residue was varied from 1:0 to 1:3. The highest prepupal biomass productivity of 179.8 g/m2/day on a dry weight basis with an assimilation efficiency of 21.5% and efficiency of conversion of digested substrate of 34.9% was obtained when the larvae were fed with rice straw and tofu residue (1:3) that had been pre-treated with a solution containing 107 cell/mL microbes. At this condition, the prepupal biomass has protein and fat content of 31.8 and 15.5% (weight basis), respectively. The cultivation residue contains a relative high amount of organic carbon (43-46%) with pH 7.16-7.82 and carbon to nitrogen ratio of 22-47 and a total macronutrient of 2.33-3.21% and functional microbes of 2.0-4.5×108 CFU/mL. The results highlight the potential of black soldier fly larvae as a bioconversion agent to convert agricultural waste into protein-rich biomass and organic fertilizer.

Biodiesel has been commercially produced on a large scale, but its application is still limited primarily due to its production cost, which is relatively more expensive than that of fossil fuel. Recently, there has been an ongoing parallel development whereby biodiesel production is carried out on a community scale, including a mobile production unit of biodiesel with local input and demand. The produced biodiesel is often intended for use by the concerned local community, which greatly reduces logistics and transportation cost. Unlike typical biodiesel production plants, a mobile biodiesel unit consists of a biodiesel production facility placed inside a standard cargo container and mounted on a truck, so that it can be transported to a region near the location of the raw materials. In this paper, we review existing concepts and units for the development of community-scale and mobile production of biodiesel. These include the main reactor technology for biodiesel production, as well as the pre-treatment prior to conveyance to the reaction unit and post-treatment. The pre-treatment includes oil extraction from oilseeds by an oil-expeller unit, as well as quality control of the oil before it enters the reaction unit. The post-treatment includes refining and purification of the biodiesel to meet the product specification set by the biodiesel industry. This paper also discusses the production cost of biodiesel on a community scale, particularly when using a mobile biodiesel unit. The production cost varies from $0.76-1.12/l. This range is still not yet competitive to the current average price of approximately $0.98/l of diesel around the world. The production cost may be reduced by applying a biorefinery concept that may translate into an economically alluring and environmentally attractive business model.

MicroalgaeNannochloropsissp. is a widely recognized renewable biodiesel feedstock. The ability of this microalgae to absorb CO2constitutes an added value toward reducing global warming. However, the process of optimizing its growth still involves many challenges. Photoinhibition, which takes places during microalgae cultivation when using continuous lighting, constitutes an unresolved problem. Therefore, the optimum light/dark cycle method is considered necessary. The experiments were conducted using a designed, tubular airlift photobioreactor and blue, energy-saving, light-emitting diode (LED) lights for the purpose of internal illumination. We observed that a 45:15 min (light:dark) cycle increased the production ofNannochloropsissp. biomass significantly, with a cell density, wet weight, and lipid content of 17 × 106cell/ml, 7.11 g, and 10.1% dry weight, respectively. By using the blue LED lights, our designed, airlift photobioreactor increased cell growth by 70% compared to the growth ofNannochloropsissp. in nature and produced 61 times higher lipid content compared toNannochloropsissp. that is exposed to natural light.

Kappaphycus alvarezii is one of the main seaweeds cultivated in Indonesia. Its use as a raw material for the kappa-carrageenan industry has increased its cultivation activities. However, standard cultivation protocol for Kappaphycus alvarezii has yet to be well-documented, particularly on strain selection for kappa-carrageenan production. There are various strains of Kappaphycus alvarezii grown in Indonesia, specifically in Serang, Banten such as green, red, and yellowish green strains. In this study, growth rate, carrageenan yield, and gel strength from different strains of Kappaphycus alvarezii were investigated. It was observed that the specific growth rate of green type (4.14% /day) differed significantly from the other two types (red; 3.41% /day and yellowish green; 3.47% /day). The red type had the highest yield of carrageenan (45.16%) followed by yellowish green (36.66%) and green strain (33.67%). Gel strength was not significantly affected by the strain variations where the observed values for yellowish green, green, and red strain were 344.46, 316.91 and 313.10 g/cm2 , respectively. Green Kappaphycus alvarezii had the highest biomass (0.27 g/cm/d) and carrageenan productivity (0.012 g/cm/d). It can be concluded that the green strain of Kappaphycus alvarezii is the most suitable for cultivation in Serang, particularly for the kappa-carrageenan industry. ***************************************************************************** : Kappaphycus alvarezii adalah sebahagian daripada rumpai air yang dituai di Indonesia. Penggunaannya sebagai bahan dasar kepada industri kappa-carrageenan telah menambah kepada aktiviti penuaian. Walau bagaimanapun, protokol penuaian biasa bagi Kappaphycus alvarezii adalah tertakluk pada dokumentasi penuh terutama dalam pemilihan strain pada penghasilan kappa-carrageenan. Terdapat pelbagai jenis strain Kappaphycus alvarezii yang tumbuh di Indonesia, terutama di Serang, Banten seperti hijau, merah, dan strain hijau kekuningan. Kajian ini, kadar pertumbuhan, hasil karaginan dan kekuatan gel daripada pelbagai strain Kappaphycus alvarezii telah dikaji. Didapati bahawa kadar pertumbuhan tertentu pada jenis hijau (4.14% /hari) berbeza ketara berbanding dari dua jenis lain (merah; 3.41% /hari dan hijau kekuningan; 3.47% /hari). Jenis merah mempunyai hasil karaginan tertinggi (45.16%) diikuti oleh hijau kekuningan (36.66%) dan strain hijau (33.67%). Kekuatan gel adalah tidak ketara mempengaruhi kepelbagaian variasi di mana nilai yang dipantau pada strain hijau kekuningan, hijau dan merah adalah 344.46, 316.91 dan 313.10 g/cm2 , masing-masing. Kappaphycus alvarezii hijau mempunyai biojisim tertinggi (0.27 g/cm/d) dan penghasilan karaginan (0.012 g/cm/d). Kesimpulannya strain hijau Kappaphycus alvarezii adalah lebih sesuai untuk disemai di Serang terutamanya pada industri kappakaraginan

Reutealis trisperma has been studied as an alternative source of producing biodiesel. Moisture content of Reutealis trisperma seed is very important to determine the quality of biodiesel produced from the oil isolated from Reutealis trisperma seed. This study investigated the time profile of moisture content for four different fractions of trisperma seed (PT-3, PT-7, PT-14, NPT-21) for four months. The moisture content of trisperma seeds was modelled using instationary diffusion equation. Total oil content in trisperma seed as well as acid value of the extracted oil from stored trisperma seed were periodically measured for four months. Acid value of trisperma oil obtained from the stored seed experienced an increase from 1.1 mg KOH/g to 2.8 mg KOH/g for PT-3, 1.9 mg KOH/g to 9.9 mg KOH/g for PT-7, 3.4 mg KOH/g to 11.6 mg KOH/g for PT-14 and 4.7 mg KOH/g to 25.4 mg KOH/g for NPT-21. The acid value of trisperma oil and biodiesel that had been stored for four months (27 °C, closed container) was also determined. Upon storage, the acid value of trisperma oil only slightly increased from 1.1 to 1.3 mg KOH/g. The acid value of stored biodiesel from trisperma oil also only slightly increased from 0.4 to 0.43 mg KOH/g.

One of the factors that influence the yield of cassia oil is the age of tree. Cassia bark is normally harvested at a tree age of 5 years old and continue to be harvested until 15 years of age. This study investigated the effect of tree age of Cinnamomum burmannii (5, 12 and 20 years old) on the yield, productivity and chemical composition of essential oil from leaf, branch and trunk bark. The essential oil was extracted using steam distillation and liquid-liquid extraction methods. The results showed that the optimum yield of Cinnamomum burmannii oil was obtained when the water content was in the range of 36-47%. The optimum yield of essential oils from the leaf was obtained at 1.36±0.31 wt% (5 years old) and for the branch and the trunk bark were obtained at 3.2±0.07 wt% and 2.95±0.30 wt% (both were 12 years old). Chemical composition of the essential oil was also analysed. The major components of Cinnamomum burmannii oil were determined as cinnamaldehyde (68.3%-82%), cinnamyl acetate (2.5%-16%), cinnamyl alcohol (2.25%-4.6%), and cinnamic acid (3%-8%). The productivity of essential oil was estimated at 336 kg/ha.year (5 years old), 577 kg/ha.year (12 years old) and 387 kg/ha.year (20 years old).

Propolis and honey produced by stingless bees are regarded as high economic value products due to their bioactive components, which are significantly influenced by conditions at the cultivation location. This study investigated the effect of cultivation location on the amount and quality of propolis and honey produced by Tetragonula laeviceps cultivated in Modular Tetragonula Hives. Fifteen bee colonies were cultivated for at least three months in coffee plantations at two different locations, namely Cibodas and Cileunyi Wetan, Indonesia. The propolis was harvested from the hives and then evaluated to compare product quality from each location. The average production of propolis in both locations was found to lie in the range of 4.26–4.54 g/colony/month with a flavonoid content of 11.4–14.8 mg/g qE. Meanwhile, the average production of honey in both locations after eight months of cultivation was found to lie in the range of 0.93–1.44 g/colony/month. The vitamin C content of the honey obtained from both locations was 17.2–69.5 mg/100 g with an IC50 of 1188–1341 mg/L, in terms of its ability to inhibit the free radical 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl. This study shows that cultivation of stingless bees on a coffee plantation in the studied locations has the potential to provide sustainable production of propolis and honey from T. laeviceps., Food science, Food technology, Tetragonula laeviceps, Modular Tetragonula Hive, Propolis, Honey Cultivation location.

A systematic study on the use of Philippine tung (Reutealis trisperma) seed as a substrate for the cultivation of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) was performed. The characteristics of Reutealis trisperma seed from two different locations: West Java and Papua, were determined. The seed has a relatively high oil (37.6–39.2%, dry weight) and protein content (14.9–28.2%, dry weight). The effect of cake content in the substrate (0–20%, wet weight), moisture content in the substrate (50–70%, wet weight), feeding rate (50–100 mg/larva/d), lighting condition (dark-light) and substrate depth in a rearing container (4–10 cm) was performed. An optimum prepupal biomass productivity of 123.4 g/m2/d was obtained (20%, wet weight of cake content in the substrate, 60%, wet weight of moisture content in the substrate, 100 mg/larva/d, dark, 6 cm substrate depth). The protein and oil content of the biomass were also determined to evaluate the effect of Reutealis trisperma seed as a substrate for the cultivation of black soldier fly larvae to produce protein and oil-rich biomass. The oil content in the biomass was also extracted and the fatty acid composition was identified. The prepupal biomass has a relatively high amount of protein (45%, dry weight) and oil content (26.6%, dry weight) and is suitable for cattle feed application.

This study was conducted to investigate factors affecting biomass growth and production of essential oils from leaf and flower of Salvia leucantha Cav. (Mexican Sage). The light intensity (37-151 μ...

Citronella oil, which is also known as Java citronella oil, is typically obtained from the leaves of Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt and has been widely used as an antiseptic, fragrance flavor and many other applications. However, systematic studies on the factors affecting the yield and composition of citronella oil are limited. Hence, this study was carried out to investigate the influence of water stress (low to high) and plant age (0.5 to 5 years) on the yield and composition of citronella oil. Citronella leaves were dried at room temperature (26-30 °C) with a relative humidity of 62-74% for 3 days before the citronella oil was extracted using a steam distillation unit. Introducing a high-water stress condition to the plants increased the yield from 0.8% (control) to 1.4% (high water stress) dry weight. The geraniol content slightly increased from 15% to 17% whereas the citronellal content considerably increased from 31% to 44% when the plants were subjected to high water stress in comparison to the control. The oil yield increased with plant age before it reached its plateau at 3.5% dry weight at age 4 years. However, the composition of citronella oil did not significantly vary with plant age.

A systematic study on the expression of rubber seed oil from dehulled rubber seeds in a hydraulic press was performed in the presence and absence of ethanol. The effect of seed moisture content (0–6 wt%, w.b.), temperature (35–105 °C), pressure (15–25 MPa) and ethanol to seed ratio (0–21%v/w) on the oil recovery was investigated. An optimum oil recovery of 76 wt%, d.b. was obtained (1.6 wt% moisture content, 14%v/w ethanol, 20 MPa, 75 °C, 10 min pressing time). The experimental dataset was modeled using two approaches, viz (i) the Shirato model and (ii) an empirical model using multi-variable non-linear regression. Good agreement between models and experimental data was obtained. Relevant properties of the rubber seed oil obtained at optimum pressing conditions (free fatty acid content, viscosity, density, water and P-content, cold flow properties and flash point) were determined. The pressed rubber seed oil has a relatively low acid value (2.3 mg KOH/g) and is suitable for subsequent biodiesel synthesis.

Continuous synthesis and refining of biodiesel (FAME) using a laboratory scale bench scale unit was explored. The unit consists of three major parts: (i) a continuous centrifugal contactor separator (CCCS) to perform the reaction between sunflower oil and methanol; (ii) a washing unit for the crude FAME with water/acetic acid consisting of a mixer and a liquid-liquid separator; and (iii) a FAME drying unit with air. The continuous setup was successfully used for a 4 h runtime without any operational issues. The CCCS was operated at an oil flow rate of 32 mL/min, rotational speed of 35 Hz, 60 degrees C, a catalyst concentration of 1.2% w/w and a methanol flow rate of 10 mL/min. The flow rate of water (containing 1% w/w acetic acid) for the biodiesel washing unit was 10 mL/min (20 degrees C); the air flow rate (5% humidity) was set at 12 L/min. After 4 h runtime, approximately 7 kg of refined FAME was produced from a cumulative sunflower oil feed of 7.07 kg. The ester content of the refined FAME was 98% w/w (GC). Other relevant product properties were also determined and most were shown to meet the ASTM specifications. The refining section was modelled and optimised using ASPEN software.Practical applications: Synthesis and refining of sunflower biodiesel was successfully performed in a dedicated bench scale unit using centrifugal contactor separator technology. Besides for large scale biodiesel production, this technology has particularly potential to be applied in small mobile biodiesel units due to the compact size, robustness, flexibility in operation and high volumetric productivity of the CCCS devices.

Silica is one of the beneficial nutrients and has various essential roles to cope with stresses situation in the graminaceous plant. The availability of Si on earth is abundant however the form that can be readily uptake by the plant is limited, and without external addition, the silica content in the cultivated land would be depleted and decreasing plant growth, recycle Si from the decaying plant is a better alternative to protect from that situation. Rice husk is a leftover paddy by-product having significant Si content that can be reused. This study offered a biological way to treat the rice husk using rumen fluid as a better alternative to the high energy consuming thermal procedure. Rice husk was macerated in rumen fluid, the kinetic and model of lignocellulose degradation were evaluated. The study in Si release in liquid media i.e. 0.05 M hydrochloric acid, 0.1 citric acid and aquades, and Si extraction in alkaline solution 1 M KOH using the rumen-treated husk showed that this method could be a better alternative to develop high Si content of solid and liquid fertilizer, respectively.

The synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) from sunflower oil and methanol was studied in a continuous centrifugal contactor separator (CCCS) using sodium methoxide as the catalyst. The effect of relevant process variables like oil and methanol flow rate, rotational speed and catalyst concentration was investigated and modelled using non-linear regression. Good agreement between experiments and model were obtained. At optimised conditions (oil flow rate of 31 mL/min, rotational speed of 34 Hz, catalyst concentration of 1.2%w/w and a methanol flow rate of 10 mL/min), the FAME yield was 94 mol% at a productivity of 2470 kg FAME/m3reactor.h. Proof of principle for the synthesis and subsequent refining of FAME in a cascade of two CCCS devices was also obtained. Relevant properties of the refined FAME obtained using this technology were determined and were shown to meet the ASTM specifications. Practical application: Synthesis and refining of sunflower biodiesel was successfully performed in a cascade of two CSSS devices. Besides for large scale biodiesel production, this technology has particularly potential to be applied in small mobile biodiesel units due to the compact size, robustness, flexibility in operation, and high volumetric productivity of the CCCS devices. Schematic representation of the process concept for continuous synthesis and refining of sunflower biodiesel synthesis in a cascade of continuous centrifugal contactor separators.

Extraction of oil from Jatropha curcas L. kernel was investigated using a lab-scale hydraulic press. A face centered composite design of experiments was employed to study and optimize the effect of applied pressure, pressing temperature and moisture content on oil recovery. A quadratic polynomial model was generated to predict oil recovery and was found to cover 98% of the range for the factors studied, namely 10–20 MPa applied pressure, 60–90 °C pressing temperature and 3–5% (w.b.) moisture content. Among the process parameters studied, pressing temperature had the most significant effect on the recovery followed by applied pressure and quadratic of moisture content. Model validation experiments show good correspondence between actual and predicted values. The optimal extraction condition for oil yield within the experimental range of the variables researched was at 19 MPa applied pressure, 90 °C pressing temperature, and 3.8% (w.b.) moisture content. At this condition, the yield of oil was predicted to be 87.8%.

Mechanical extraction is considered to be the best option for oil expression of Jatropha curcas in rural areas. Lab scale hydraulic pressing experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of process parameters on oil recovery from Jatropha kernel. The ranges of pressing parameters investigated were: compression speed, 0.05–2.5 MPa/s; applied pressure, 5–25 MPa; moisture content, 1–6%; pressing temperature, 25–105 °C; pressing time, 1–30 min; shell removal, 0–100%; preheating time, 0–30 min; and particle size, fine, coarse and whole kernel. Chemical analyses such as acid value, phosphorus content, oxidative stability index and water content were carried out to determine the quality of the oil. Moisture content was found to influence oil recovery at any applied pressure and pressure rates. Oil recovery increased to some extent with an increase in temperature or pressing time. The preferred moisture content was found to be about 4% (w.b.). The presence of Jatropha shell and size reduction of the kernel reduce oil recovery. The optimum oil recovery with respect to time of pressing and oil quality was obtained when Jatropha kernel was pressed at 15 MPa, 90 °C, 4% (w.b.) moisture content for 10 min of pressing. The oil recovery obtained at these processing conditions was 86.1%.

This paper describes an experimental study on the application of metal triflate salts for the (trans-) esterification of fatty esters (triolein, methyl oleate, methyl linoleate), fatty acid (oleic acid), as well as Jatropha curcas L. oil with methanol and higher alcohols (ethanol, n-propanol, iso-propanol, iso-butanol, tert-butanol). The effect of the metal type (scandium, bismuth, aluminium, lanthanum, copper, zinc) and process conditions on reaction performance were evaluated. Highest conversions were obtained with Al(OTf)(3). Reaction of triolein with methanol gave 99 mol% conversion at 165 degrees C for 1 h and the main product was the methyl ester. In addition, partial methoxylation of the carbon-carbon double bonds in the fatty acid chains was observed, though their fraction in the mixture was less than 20 mol%. The trans-esterification reaction was also successfully performed using higher alcohols, giving >95 % conversions for ethanol, n-propanol, iso-propanol and iso-butanol, whereas tert-butanol was not reactive. For the reaction of oleic acid with methanol, quantitative esterification, partial methoxylation of the carbon-carbon double bonds and the formation of small amounts of a lactone was observed. The methodology using Al(OTf)(3) was successfully performed on the trans-esterification reaction of JO (FFA content of 2.1 wt%) with various alcohols. Key properties (viscosity, pour point and cloud points) of the (branched) Jatropha esters were determined. The best cold-flow properties were obtained for the iso-propyl esters of JO, with cloud point and pour point of -3 and -24 degrees C, respectively.

In this research, heterogeneous solid base catalysts were derived from corn cobs. the solid base catalyst was obtained which was then used for the production of palm oil biodiesel with a transesterification reaction. The catalyst prepared corn cobs with impregnation of NaOH then calcined temperature 400°C at 2 hours. The optimum conditions for the function of duration reaction time and catalyst amount obtained catalyst amount 3% at 60 minutes, temperature 65°C, ratio methanol to oil 12:1 obtained yield of biodiesel 93.10% while the function of reaction temperature and catalyst amount obtained catalyst amount 2.5%, ratio methanol to oil 12:1, at duration time is 60 minutes and temperature 60°C obtained yields 97.35%. The catalyst was easily separated from the reaction mixture by filtration and able to reuse for 2 times. The biodiesel product is specified with EN14214. Heterogeneous catalysts derived from corn cobs that show high-cost potential and produce easy ones as solid catalysts for the transesterification reaction of biodiesel production.

The effect of antioxidants on the oxidation stability of oils extracted from Jatropha curcas seeds was measured by the accelerated oxidation test specified in EN 14112 using commercial Rancimat 873 equipment. To find the appropriate antioxidant for jatropha oil, fourteen different antioxidants were screened at concentrations of 500 and 1000ppm. Pyrogallol (PY) and propyl gallate (PG) significantly improved the oxidative stability of jatropha oil and PY was further studied at concentrations of 50-1000ppm. Even at concentrations as low as 50ppm, PY was found to fulfill the specifications set by the DIN 51605 norm for plant oil as biofuels. Mixtures of antioxidants were tested at concentrations varying between 100 and 1000ppm, showing a synergistic effect for the combination of PY and N,N-di-sec-butyl-p-phenylenediamine at all concentrations and ratios tested. It further was found that the quality, i.e. the history of the oil in terms of processing, age and storage conditions, strongly affects the performance of PY as the antioxidant. PY in particular improved the oxidative stability of oxidized and highly acidic oils. PY was found to be a good antioxidant for both jatropha oil and the derived biodiesel. Practical applications: Jatropha oil is one of many potential triglyceride feedstocks suitable for the production of biofuel or other consumer products. Finding the best antioxidant for this particular resource is important since the resistance to oxidative degradation depends on the chemical structure of the triglyceride. Pyrogallol was found to be the preferred antioxidant with beneficial results found for oxidized and, as a result, highly acidic oils. The results of this study are useful for companies involved in jatropha oil-derived products such as biodiesel, lubricants or other non-food applications.

The synthesis of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) from Jatropha curcas L. oil was studied in a batch reactor and a continuous centrifugal contactor separator (CCCS) using sodium ethoxide as the catalyst. The effect of relevant process variables like rotational speed, temperature, catalyst concentration, and molar ratio of ethanol to oil was investigated. Maximum yield of FAEE was 98?mol% for both the batch (70 degrees C, 600?rpm, 0.8% w/w of sodium ethoxide) and CCCS reactor configuration (60 degrees C, 2100?rpm, 1% w/w of sodium ethoxide, oil feed 28?mL/min). The volumetric production rate of FAEE in the CCCS at optimum conditions was 112?kgFAEE/m3liquid?.?min. Practical applications: The Jatropha curcas L. shrub produces a non-edible oil in yields up to 1.5?ton/(ha.?y), which is known to be suitable for biodiesel synthesis. We here report an experimental study on the synthesis of jatropha biodiesel using ethanol instead of methanol as the alcohol source. Ethanol is accessible from biomass by fermentation and as such a green alternative for methanol. In addition, it is more readily available in developing countries than methanol. Biodiesel synthesis was performed in a CSSS, a continuous device that integrates reaction and separation. The device has potential to be applied in small scale mobile biodiesel technology due to its compact size, robustness, flexibility in operation, and high volumetric productivities.

Rubber seed oil (RSO) derived from rubber seeds is considered a promising plant oil. However, subsequent biodiesel synthesis from RSO was reported to be difficult due to the high acidity of the oil. Detailed studies on the effects of storage time of rubber seeds on relevant product properties such as acid value are not yet available. The authors here report a study on the influence of storage time on the moisture content of rubber seeds and the acid value of the oil within the seeds. In addition, the acidity of isolated rubber seed oil and the acidity of rubber seed oil ethyl esters versus time was determined. The moisture content as a function of the time for two different batches of rubber seeds, one with an initial water content of 3.1 wt% (obtained by drying the seeds at 60 °C for 3 days) and another with a moisture content 10.7 wt% (as received, non-dried) were determined at 27 °C and a relative humidity of 67 % for a period of 2 months. The moisture versus time curves were successfully modelled using an analytical solution of the instationary diffusion equation and allowed determination of the diffusion coefficient of water in the rubber seeds at 27 °C. The acid value of the isolated rubber seed oil increased considerably in time for both cases (from 0.84 to 4.19 mg KOH/g for the non-dried seeds and from 0.51 to 2.13 mg KOH/g for the dried seeds). Freshly isolated rubber seed oil and rubber seed ethyl esters derived thereof prepared using a transesterification reaction have a relatively low acid value of 0.52 and 0.32 mg KOH/g respectively. The acid value of rubber seed oil only slightly increased during storage (0.52–0.60 mg KOH/g), whereas the acid value of the rubber seed ethyl esters (0.32–0.33 mg KOH/g) does not change significantly. Long-term seed storage led to an increase in the acid value of the oils present in the rubber seeds. Pre-treatment (e.g. drying) of the rubber seeds showed a positive effect and the increase in acid value in time was lower than for the non-pretreated seeds. It is recommended to store the isolated rubber seed oil instead of the rubber seeds to minimize acid formation.

An experimental study to modify Sterculia foetida L. oil (STO) or the corresponding methyl esters (STO FAME) to branched ester derivatives is reported. The transformations involve conversion of the cyclopropene rings in the fatty acid chains of STO through various catalytic as well as stoichiometric reactions. Full conversion of the cyclopropene rings was obtained using DielsAlder chemistry involving cyclopentadiene in water at 40 degrees C without the need for a catalyst. Olefin metathesis reactions were performed using a Grubbs 2nd generation catalyst and cyclopropene ring conversion was =99 and 54 mol% with 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene and 1-octene, respectively. Oxidation reactions were performed using established epoxidation (Sharpless) and dihydroxylation (Prilezhaev) protocols using aqueous hydrogen peroxide as the oxidant. For both reactions, full conversion of the cyclopropene rings was obtained at RT to yield the corresponding a,beta-unsaturated ketone in good selectivities. Rearrangement reactions of the cyclopropene rings to the corresponding conjugated diene were successfully performed using homogeneous and heterogeneous palladium catalysts. Excellent conversions (=99%) were obtained using homogeneous palladium catalyst in a biphasic cyclohexanewater mixture (1:1) at 90 degrees C. Relevant cold flow properties of all products were determined and compared to crude STO and STO FAME. Best results were obtained for the metathesis products of STO with 1-octene, with a cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP) of -12 degrees C.

The synthesis and properties of a number of novel branched Jatropha curcas L. oil (JO) derivatives containing vicinal di-ester units in the fatty acid chains are reported. Both the length (acetyl vs. hexanoyl) and the stereochemistry of the vicinal di-ester units (cis vs. trans) were varied. The compounds were prepared by two different synthetic approaches using catalytic chemistry. The first approach involves epoxidation of JO using a Sharpless epoxidation with methyltrioxorhenium as the catalyst to give epoxidized JO (1), followed by an esterification reaction with the corresponding anhydrides using ammonium-12-molybdophosphate (AMP) as catalyst to give trans-di-esters of JO (4a, 4b). The second approach is based on the dihydroxylation of JO using either the Prilezhaev method, resulting in trans-diols of JO (2), or the Upjohn method using osmium tetroxide as catalyst to give cis-diols of JO (3). In subsequent steps, the diols were esterified with acetic- or hexanoic anhydride using dimethylaminopyridine as catalyst to produce the corresponding cis- and trans-di-esters of JO (5a, 5b, 6). The best cold flow properties (lowest pour- and cloud point, crystallization and melting temperature) were obtained for JO with hexanoyl branches in a trans orientation (5b, pour point of � 148C, melting point of � 58C, and crystallization temperature of � 258C) and these values are considerably better than for the JO source. Practical applications: Jatropha curcas L. oil (JO) is a toxic oil with potential applications not only as a greenbiodiesel but alsoas a feedstock for theoleochemical industry. The toxicityprohibits theusein food products but does not interfere with technical applications. Here we report studies on the synthesis of interesting JO derivatives (epoxidized, dihydroxylated, and branched compounds) that could be useful starting materials for a range of derivatives with a broad application perspective. The branched JO derivatives with vicinal di-ester units in the fatty acid chains have cold flow properties (pour- and cloud point, melting point and crystallization temperature) considerably better than the original JO. In addition, the oxidative stability was also improved significantly. These novel branched JO derivatives may have interesting applications as cold-flow improvers for biodiesel or as biolubricants.

4 Abstract: Distillation process of M. cajuputi Powell leaves to produce cajuput oil, yields a large amount of solid residue as waste materials. In vitro testing was conducted to evaluate the potential of solid residue of M. cajuputi Powell leaves as cattle feed. The measured variables were NH3, volatile fatty acids (VFA), Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD), and Organic Matter Digestibility (DMO). Completely randomized design was made with 5 different treatments and 4 replications, in order to get 20 experimental units. Data was analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Duncan's multiple range test with a significance level of 5%. The results showed that giving 100% of the solid residue of M. cajuputi Powell leaves produced VFA, DMD and DMO for about 102.25 mM, 59.75% and 42.28% respectively, but with lesser amount of NH3 (2.54mM). These results were significant (P < 0.05) and are higher than the results by using field grass. It can be concluded that the solid residue of M. cajuputi Powell leaves has the potential to be used as cattle feed.

Gelam putih (M. cajuputi Powell) in Central Kalimantan, has not been exploited well. In vitro test conducted to evaluate the potential of gelam leaves as cattle feed. The measured variables were NH3, volatile fatty acids (VFA), dry matter Digestibility (DMD) and organic matter Digestibility (DMO). Completely randomized design was made with 5 different treatments and 4 replications, in order to get 20 experimental units. Data were analyzed by analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Followed by Duncan's multiple range test with a significance level of 5%. The results showed that the giving 100% of gelam leaves produced NH3 dan VFA for about 4.01 and 151.25 mM, also DMD and DMO by 58.35 and 52.38%. These results were significant (p

This paper describes a systematic study on the synthesis of higher fatty esters of corn starch (starch laurate and starch stearate) by using the corresponding vinyl esters. The reactions were carried out in DMSO using basic catalysts (Na(2)HPO(4), K(2)CO(3), and Na-acetate). The effect of the process variables (vinyl ester to starch ratio, catalyst intake, reaction temperature and type of the catalyst) on the degree of substitution (DS) of the starch laurate and starch stearate esters was determined by performing a total of 54 experiments. The results were adequately modeled using a non-linear multivariable regression model (R(2)>= 0.96). The basicity of the catalyst and the reaction temperature have the highest impact on the product DS. The thermal and mechanical properties of some representative product samples were determined. High-DS products (DS = 2.26-2.39) are totally amorphous whereas the low-DS ones (DS = 1.45-1.75) are still partially crystalline. The thermal stability of the esterified products is higher than that of native starch. Mechanical tests show that the products have a tensile strength (stress at break) between 2.7-3.5 MPa, elongation at break of 3-26%, and modulus of elasticity of 46-113 MPa.

We here report our studies on the upgrading of flash pyrolysis oil using an improved alcohol treatment method. The method consists of treating pyrolysis oil with a high boiling alcohol like n-butanol in the presence of a (solid) acid catalyst at 323–353 K under reduced pressure (

A series of epoxidized oils were prepared from rubber seed, soybean, jatropha, palm, and coconut oils. The epoxy content varied from 0.03 to 7.4 wt %, in accordance with the degree of unsaturation of the oils (lowest for coconut, highest for rubber seed oil). Bulk polymerization/curing of the epoxidized oils with triethylenetetramine (in the absence of a catalyst) was carried out in a batch setup (1 : 1 molar ratio of epoxide to primary amine groups, 100 degrees C, 100 rpm, 30 min) followed by casting of the mixture in a steel mold (180 degrees C, 200 bar, 21 h) and this resulted in cross-linked resins. The effect of relevant pressing conditions such as time, temperature, pressure, and molar ratio of the epoxide and primary amine groups was investigated and modeled using multivariable nonlinear regression. Good agreement between experimental data and model were obtained. The rubber seed oil-derived polymer has a T-g of 11.1 degrees C, a tensile strength of 1.72 MPa, and strain at break of 182%. These values are slightly higher than for commercial epoxidized soybean oil (T-g of 6.9 degrees C, tensile strength of 1.11 MPa, and strain at break of 145.7%). However, the comparison highlights the potential for these novel resins to be used at industrial/commercial level. (c) 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015, 132, 42591.

A comprehensive experimental and modelling study on the acid-catalysed hydrolysis of the water hyacinth plant (Eichhornia crassipes) to optimise the yield of levulinic acid (LA) is reported (T = 150-175 degrees C, C-H2SO4 - 0.1-1 M, water hyacinth intake = 1-5 wt%). At high acid concentrations (> 0.5 M), LA was the major organic acid whereas at low acid concentrations (

Recently we developed a new type of open core moving bed rice husk gasifier for small scale application. Here, we present a chemical reaction engineering model to predict its performance as function of operating variables. The model is validated by experimental results. TIT rate of the rice husk was varied in the range of 50-300 kg/m2.h. and the air velocity from 50 to 500 Nm3/m2.h. The product gas had a lower heating value in the range of 2700-4700 kJ/Nm3.Gasification kinetics of rice husk char was investigated experimentally. The results could be modeled with an isothermal Modified Volume Reaction (MVR) model as developed by Kasaoka et.al. For simulation purposes the gasifier is divided into two separated zones where different processes occur. In the top zone: drying, pyrolysis, and oxidation occurs which are described by a thermodynamic Schlapfer model. The bottom zone (the reduction zone) is described by a non equilibrium chemical reaction engineering model. That model is based on mass and energy balances, reaction kinetics, transport rates, and fundamental thermodynamic relations. The simulated temperature, gas composition and carbon conversion profiles have been compared with those obtained from pilot plant experimental runs. The model can be used to predict the effects of changing operating parameters and feed properties on reactor performance data such as carbon conversion efficiency, producer gas yield and heating value. It also can predict the temperature, the carbon conversion, the gas composition and the producer gas lower heating value profiles within the reactor as a function of the distance from the grid.