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We present a new method for explaining causal interactions among people in video. The input to the overall system is video in which people are low/medium resolution. We extract and maintain a set of qualitative descriptions of single-person activity using the low-level vision techniques of spatiotemporal action recognition and gaze-direction approximation. This models the input to the "sensors" of the person agent in the scene and is a general sensing strategy for a person agent in a variety of application domains. The information subsequently available to the reasoning process is deliberately limited to model what an agent would actually be able to sense. The reasoning is therefore not a classical "all-knowing" strategy but uses these "sensed" facts obtained from the agents, combined with generic domain knowledge, to generate causal explanations of interactions. We present results from urban surveillance video.

Vaping cannabinoids in electronic (e)-cigarette devices is rapidly increasing in popularity, particularly among adolescents, although the chemistry affecting the composition of the vape aerosol is not well understood. This work investigates the formation of aerosol mass, bioactive hydroxyquinones, and harmful or potentially harmful carbonyls from the e-cigarette vaping of natural and synthetic cannabinoids e-liquids in propylene glycol and vegetable glycerin (PG/VG) solvent at a 50 mg/mL concentration in a commercial fourth-generation vaping device. The following cannabinoids were studied: cannabidiol (CBD), 8,9-dihydrocannabidiol (H2CBD), 1,2,8,9-tetrahydrocannabidiol (H4CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA). Quantification of analytes was performed using liquid chromatography coupled to accurate mass spectrometry. The addition of cannabinoids significantly increased aerosol and carbonyl formation compared with the PG/VG solvent alone. All cannabinoids in the study formed hydroxyquinones during vaping (up to ∼1% mass conversion) except for CBDA, which primarily decarboxylated to CBD. Hydroxyquinone formation increased and carbonyl formation decreased, with a decreasing number of double bonds among CBD and its synthetic analogues (H2CBD and H4CBD). During the vaping process, ∼3-6% of the cannabinoid mass can be observed as carbonyls under the study conditions. Oxidation of the terpene moiety on the cannabinoids is proposed as a major contributor to carbonyl formation. CBD produced significantly higher concentrations of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acrolein, diacetyl, and methylglyoxal compared with the other cannabinoid samples. CBG produced significantly higher levels of acetone, methacrolein, and methylglyoxal. Conversion of CBD to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was not observed under the study conditions. The chemical mechanism basis for these observations is discussed. Compared with other modalities of use for CBD and other cannabinoids, vaping has the potential to adversely impact human health by producing harmful products during the heated aerosolization process.

Electronic (e-) cigarette formulations containing nicotine salts from a range of organic acid conjugates and pH values have dominated the commercial market. The acids in the nicotine salt formulations may alter the redox environment in e-cigarettes, impacting free radical formation in e-cigarette aerosol. Here, the generation of aerosol mass and free radicals from a fourth-generation e-cigarette device was evaluated at 2 wt % nicotine salts (pH 7, 30:70 mixture propylene glycol to vegetable glycerin) across eight organic acids used in e-liquids: benzoic acid (BA), salicylic acid (SLA), lactic acid (LA), levulinic acid (LVA), succinic acid (SA), malic acid (MA), tartaric acid (TA), and citric acid (CA). Furthermore, 2 wt % BA nicotine salts were studied at the following nicotine to acid ratios: 1:2 (pH 4), 1:1 (pH 7), and 2:1 (pH 8), in comparison with freebase nicotine (pH 10). Radical yields were quantified by spin-trapping and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. The EPR spectra of free radicals in the nicotine salt aerosol matched those generated from the Fenton reaction, which are primarily hydroxyl (OH) radicals and other reactive oxygen species (ROS). Although the aerosol mass formation was not significantly different for most of the tested nicotine salts and acid concentrations, notable ROS yields were observed only from BA, CA, and TA under the study conditions. The e-liquids with SLA, LA, LVA, SA, and MA produced less ROS than the 2 wt % freebase nicotine e-liquid, suggesting that organic acids may play dual roles in the production and scavenging of ROS. For BA nicotine salts, it was found that the ROS yield increased with a higher acid concentration (or a lower nicotine to acid ratio). The observation that BA nicotine salts produce the highest ROS yield in aerosol generated from a fourth-generation vape device, which increases with acid concentration, has important implications for ROS-mediated health outcomes that may be relevant to consumers, manufacturers, and regulatory agencies.

A method previously used in this laboratory for entrapment of tumor cells in alginate beads has been extended to provide a slow release delivery system for growth factors with known in vivo angiogenic activity. Protein growth factors were entrapped in alginate beads in amounts sufficient to cause incorporation of 3H-thymidine by COMMA-D cells in vitro, and in vivo neovascularization when injected subcutaneously into Balb/c mice. Entrapment of 125I-labelled growth factors showed that the amount of molecule entrapped in alginate beads may vary with the charge of the molecule. In vitro cell proliferation studies showed that entrapment in alginate beads may provide a slow-release system or a stabilizing environment for the protein. In some cases biological activity of the growth factor in solution was increased by the presence of control alginate beads. When alginate-entrapped growth factors were injected into Balb/c mice, induction of new blood vessels could be monitored qualitatively by macroscopic photography and assessed quantitatively by measuring the pooling of radiolabelled red blood cells at the experimental site. Subcutaneous injection of purified angiogenic factors not entrapped in alginate beads did not cause neovascularization. Diffusion of 125I-labelled growth factors from alginate beads in the animal showed that release in vivo may depend on the charge of the protein molecule. These results indicate that injection of purified molecules entrapped in alginate beads provides an effective localized and slow-release delivery of biologically active molecules. This delivery system may extend the time of effectiveness of biologically active molecules in vivo compared to direct injection without alginate entrapment. The method of entrapment and injection has potential for identifying active factors in tumor-induced angiogenesis and testing new compounds as modulators of neovascularization.

An in vivo model of tumor-induced angiogenesis was used to monitor two known inhibitors of angiogenesis, protamine sulfate and the steroid tetrahydro S. Tumor cells entrapped in alginate beads were injected s.c. into mice. Blood vessel induction was measured by two quantitative methods: measurement of hemoglobin at the alginate pellet site, and pooling of radiolabeled RBC to the alginate pellet site. The two methods gave parallel results. Tetrahydro S with or without heparin inhibited blood vessel growth by 50%, and protamine sulfate inhibited blood vessel growth by 85%. These results were supported by gross morphology and histological analysis of the alginate pellet site.