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This study examines the associations of physical activity and gross motor skills in parent-child dyads. Parent-child dyads (N = 61, 84% mothers, children aged 8-11 years) participated in this study. Anthropometrics were self-reported through Qualtrics. Physical activity was assessed using accelerometers. Motor skills were measured through four skills: catch, kick, throw, and jump. These skills were assessed using process (i.e., performance criteria of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3) and product (i.e., catch percentage and jump distance) measures. A complete motor skill score was computed by standardizing both process and product scores and summing them. Correlation coefficients and ordinary least square regressions were computed to examine the associations of physical activity and motor skills. Parents' and children's moderate to vigorous physical activity were significantly associated ([beta] = 0.30 ± 0.11; p = 0.008). Parents' and children's motor skills were significantly associated ([beta] = 0.46 ± 0.18; p = 0.012). Understanding parent determinants can support effective interventions targeting children's low physical activity levels and improving motor competence. Our results highlight the importance of parents' physical activity and motor skills, which are significantly associated with those of their children. These parent factors may be a key consideration for effective family-based physical activity interventions.

This study examined the effects of a motor-skill intervention on children's perceived motor competence (PMC; object control, locomotor, and combined [total]) and explored if effects differed between the sexes. Preschoolers (N = 274; 47.96 months) completed either a motor-skill intervention (the Children's Health Activity Motor Program [CHAMP]) or recess. PMC was measured with the Digital Scale of PMC before and after each condition. Controlling for pretest scores, recess girls had lower posttest object-control PMC scores than CHAMP boys, CHAMP girls, and recess boys (all p <.05). CHAMP children had significantly higher posttest locomotor and total PMC (all p <.001) compared with children who engaged in recess. CHAMP partially eliminates sex differences in PMC, particularly for object-control skills. Girls who participated in recess did not increase PMC like children in CHAMP and boys who engaged in outdoor recess. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to: (1) determine if process- and product-oriented measures similarly evaluate changes in motor skills across an intervention; and (2) examine the relationship between preschoolers' motor skills when assessed using process-oriented and product-oriented measures before (pretest) and after (posttest) the intervention. Preschoolers (n = 65, M[subscript age] = 4.6 ± 0.42 years) completed both process- and product-oriented measures of six FMS -- run, hop, jump, catch, throw, and kick, before and after a high-autonomy motor skill intervention. Aggregate total, locomotor, and ball skills, as well as each individual skill, were examined. Children demonstrated improvements in process-oriented (p < 0.01) skills, but only improved on the product hop, throw, and kick (p < 0.001) after the intervention. Children's ranks on process- and product-oriented measures were correlated at pretest (r[subscript s] = 0.28-0.72) and posttest (r[subscript s] = 0.39-0.68). Therefore, process- and product-oriented measures assess different aspects of motor competence and do not equally evaluate intervention efficacy.

Background: Locomotor and object control skills are considered essential skills for children to learn due to their potential impact in aiding in future health-enhancing physical activity. Evidence indicates that out-of-school time programs (OST) can provide meaningful movement opportunities for children. It has been found that leaders of OST programs are not equipped with the proper training to improve children's motor skills. The purpose of this study was to gather expert consensus on the essential motor skills that should be practiced and evidence-based activities that should be integrated during OST programming. Methods: A three-round Delphi method was used to establish expert consensus on essential motor skills that children (5–10 years of age) should practice and evidence-based activities that should be integrated during OST programming to enhance child motor skill development. Results: Seven experts completed three rounds, and consensus was established (>70% agreement). Five essential motor skills were identified: overhand throwing, kicking, catching, jumping, and striking. Six evidence-based activities were agreed upon: team sport play, racket sports, swimming, resistance training, jogging/walking, and game-based approaches. Conclusion: Results from this study provide specific motor skills and evidence-based activities that program leaders could integrate during OST programming to enhance child motor skill development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is some, albeit inconsistent, evidence supporting sex differences in preschoolers' motor competence (MC), with these observations not uniform when analyzed by age, and cultural groups. Thus, this study examined sex differences across ages in 3‐ to 5‐year‐old children's MC. A cross‐country pooled sample of 6241 children aged 3–5 years (49.6% girls) was assessed for MC using the Test of Gross Motor Development—2nd/3rd edition, and children were categorized into groups of age in months. Multiple linear regression models and predictive margins were calculated to explore how sex and age in months affect scores of MC (i.e., locomotor and ball skills), with adjustments for country and BMI. The Chow's Test was used to test for the presence of a structural break in the data. Significant differences in favor of girls were seen at 57–59 and 66–68 months of age for locomotor skills; boys performed better in ball skills in all age periods, except for 42–44 and 45–47 months of age. The higher marginal effects were observed for the period between 45–47 and 48–50 months for locomotor skills (F = 30.21; and F = 25.90 for girls and boys, respectively), and ball skills (F = 19.01; and F = 42.11 for girls and boys, respectively). A significantly positive break point was seen at 45–47 months, highlighting the age interval where children's MC drastically improved. The identification of this breakpoint provides an evidence‐based metric for when we might expect MC to rapidly increase, and an indicator of early delay when change does not occur at that age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the psychological responses to intermittent activities of varying intensities and types among children with and without asthma. Methods: A total of 37 children and adolescents (51% male, aged 8–16 y, 54% nonwhite, and 54% without asthma) participated in this study. Participants completed 5 exercises in the same order: self-paced walking, resistance activities, dance video, gamified obstacle course, and step test. In-task mood was assessed using the Feeling Scale, in-task perceived exertion was assessed via the ratings of perceived exertion scale, and postactivity enjoyment was assessed using the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale. Results: There was a significant main effect of exercise type on mood (P <.001), ratings of perceived exertion (P <.001), and enjoyment (P <.002). There was not a significant main effect of asthma status on mood, ratings of perceived exertion, or enjoyment (Ps >.05). Children with asthma reported significantly lower in-task mood during the step exercise (P <.037) and reported significantly lower postactivity enjoyment after the walk and obstacle course exercises (Ps <.03). Conclusions: Regardless of differences by asthma status for in-task mood during the obstacle course and for postactivity enjoyment during the walk and step exercises, both children with and without asthma reported high in-task mood and postactivity enjoyment during all 5 exercises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This feasibility study compared the effects of 2 movement programs, traditional and mastery climate (i.e., the Children's Health Activity Motor Program [CHAMP]), on lesson context and children's physical activity (PA) levels. A secondary aim was to examine sex differences in PA levels in both programs. Method: Seventy-two preschoolers served as participants and were assigned to a movement program. Physical activity levels and lesson context were assessed with the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time. Results: Preschoolers in CHAMP spent more time walking (p < 0.05, d = 3.3), more time in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA; p < 0.05, d = 3.6), and less time standing (p < 0.05, d = 3.8) compared with those in a traditional movement program. Boys in both programs spent less time standing (p < 0.05, d = 4.8) and more time in vigorous activity (p < 0.05, d = 5.8) and MVPA (p < 0.05, d = 4.4) compared with girls. During CHAMP, children spent less time engaged in management and knowledge (p < 0.05, d = 1.4, and p < 0.001, d = 0.9, respectively) and more time in skill practice (p < 0.05, d = 1.5). Conclusion: The findings support that participation in CHAMP elicits more MVPA in preschool-age children compared with a traditional movement program. The Children's Health Activity Motor Program provided children with more class time devoted to skill practice. The program appears to be an innovative approach that is beneficial for PA engagement and could contribute positively to children's health.

Research has shown that children's levels of physical activity are set at an all-time low, which can lead to health problems such as obesity and diabetes. So, what can parents do to ensure that their child gets enough physical activity each day? This booklet answers that question and explains why the key to helping a child be more physically active is to help him or her develop physical literacy. It provides suggestions for helping children develop fine motor skills, movement concepts, locomotor skills, nonlocomotory skills, and manipulative skills. Parents will also find the answers to frequently asked questions very useful, as they take on a more active role in the development of their child's physical literacy.

Preschool-aged children are not meeting national physical activity recommendations. This study compares preschoolers' physical activity engagement during two different physical activity opportunities: outdoor free play or a structured movement session. Eighty-seven children served as participants: 40 children participated in outdoor free play and another 47 children participated in a planned movement session. Children in the movement program replaced their outdoor free play with a structured movement session on 2 days each week. All movement opportunities were 30-min in duration. Physical activity was objectively measured using accelerometers. Results show that, compared to children on the playground, children in the movement program engaged in less sedentary behaviors and more light, moderate, vigorous and moderate to vigorous physical activity. In total, children in the movement program engaged in 15.5 min of healthier physical activity behaviors as compared with children in the outdoor free play. Structured movement time appears to afford children an opportunity to engage in more physical activity than outdoor time alone. Findings support that preschool centers should provide children with a daily structured movement time that includes formalized instruction in addition to regularly scheduled outdoor free play.

Background and purpose: Attentional focus cues have been shown to impact motor performance of adults and children. Specifically, an external focus of attention results in improved motor learning and performance as compared to adopting an internal focus of attention. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an internal and external attentional focus cue on children's object control skill performance during a commonly used motor skill assessment. Methods: Using a within-participant design, a total of 44 children (M[subscript age] = 7.7 years, 20 boys and 24 girls) completed all three attentional focus conditions. The object control subscale of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2; Ulrich, 2000. "Test of Gross Motor Development-2." Austin: Pro-Ed.) served as the motor skill assessment in present study. The TGMD-2 is a normed and criteria-referenced assessment frequently used to assess fundamental motor skill competence in children. The object control subtest of the TGMD-2 assesses a child's ability to complete six fundamental motor skills--striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, kick, overhand throw, and underhand roll. All participants completed the object control subtest of the TGMD-2 under three different attentional focus conditions: baseline (i.e. neutral focus), internal, and external. The internal cue focused on movement performance and the external cue focused on movement outcome. In all three conditions, a video demonstration of proper skill performance was used to ensure no difference in visual demonstration, but the overlaying audio was changed to encompass each attentional focus condition. Children's motor performance was recorded and later coded by a single researcher blinded to the study. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to determine if children's motor scores changed among the three conditions. Results: Findings demonstrated that children's performance differed among the three conditions (F[subscript (2,43)] = 3.5, p < 0.05). Post hoc analysis revealed that children scored significantly better in the external cue condition compared to the baseline (difference = 1.98, p < 0.05). No other significant differences were present. Conclusion: Children performed better when given a verbal instruction to focus their attention externally rather than a verbal instruction with no attentional focus cue. No significant differences exist between the internal and external focus condition or between the neutral and internal condition. Our findings align with the literature and support that external attentional focus cues have a positive effect on motor performance. From a teaching and learning standpoint, using consistent instructions appears to be essential for young learners. Slight changes in verbal cues can have a significant effect on how well children execute fundamental motor skills.

This study (a) examined the associations among different performance metrics derived from different strategies (i.e., maximum and average scores) and trials from product-oriented measures of motor skills, and (b) explored how different performance metrics from product-oriented assessments of motor skills change in young children with typical development. Children (N = 279; 156 girls; Mage = 4.44 years) completed a battery of product-oriented assessments for throwing (in meters per second, five trials); kicking (in meters per second, five trials); jumping (in centimeters, five trials); running (in meters per second, two trials); and hopping (in meters per second, four trials—two preferred foot, two nonpreferred foot). A total of 36 performance metrics were derived—throw (n = 7), kick (n = 7), jump (n = 7), run (n = 4), and hop (n = 11). Intraclass correlations examined reliability among performance metrics for each skill; linear mixed models examined whether variations changed across early childhood. There was excellent reliability among all performance metrics for each skill (all ICC >.90). Linear mixed models revealed that children's motor performance improved for two metrics of the throw, five variations of the jump, and three metrics of the hop (all p <.05). Researchers should be aware that some performance metrics from product-oriented assessments (e.g., maximum and average of three or five trials) are highly related and change, whereas others do not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of two physical education (PE) instructional climates (mastery, performance) on the percentage of time students spent in a) moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and b) management tasks during PE in 2nd-grade students. Forty-eight 2nd graders (mastery, n = 23; performance, n = 25) participated in a daily, school-based five-week PE intervention. All students also participated in typical PE during a baseline phase, thereby serving as their own control group. The System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) was used to describe the lesson context and students' physical activity for each PE session. Students spent an average of 36.9%, 9.9%, and 23.5% of class time in management tasks during typical PE, mastery, and performance climates, respectively. The mastery climate spent significantly less time in management compared to the performance climate and typical PE (p < 0.001). Results indicated that students engaged in significantly more MVPA during the mastery (68%) and performance (67%) climates compared to typical PE (49.7%) across 24 lessons (p < 0.05). Results suggest that a mastery climate can decrease the percentage of time spent in management tasks and that a structured intervention can increase MVPA in 2nd-grade students.

Background: Competence in the motor domain is associated with positive, health-related outcomes. Physical education teachers often administer assessments into their programs to measure motor competence for a variety of reasons. Recently, researchers have questioned the relatedness of performance on different assessments. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare motor assessment outcomes of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) in school-age children. Method: Sixty-five children (M?=?6.7 years) completed the TGMD-2 and the MABC-2. The TGMD-2 includes two subscales: object control and locomotor skills. The MABC-2 includes three subscales: manual dexterity, aiming and catching, and balance. Standard scores and percentile rankings were used for analysis. Findings: Although 10 of the possible 12 Pearson correlations were significant, the range of r² values was 0.07-0.27 indicating low practical significance. A paired samples t-test revealed that participants scored higher on the MABC-2 (M?=?42.2 percentile) compared to the TGMD-2 (M?=?17.2 percentile, p??0.05). Results indicate that both assessments agreed on 9 out of 11 possible children as at-risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (81.8% agreement) and 27 out of 29 children as delayed in the motor domain (93.1% agreement). Conclusions: The TGMD-2 and MABC-2 measure different aspects and/or levels of motor competence and should not be used interchangeably. Each assessment may be used to complement each other. Given the level of agreement between the TGMD-2 and the MABC-2 to identify children as at-risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder and developmentally delayed in the motor domain, it may be recommended that physical education teachers administer the TGMD-2 as part of annual testing. Physical educators can act as the first line of defense in early identification of motor delay and can make the appropriate referral based on TGMD-2 performance.

Background: Activity breaks are an established way physical activity may be incorporated into the preschool day. The purpose of this study was to examine what factors influenced moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during a teacher-implemented classroom-based activity break (CBAB) in a Head Start population. Methods: Ten-minute CBAB was conducted over 2 days in a quasi-experimental design; 99 preschoolers (mean age 3.80 [0.65] y; 49.5% male) from a convenience sample participated. Accelerometers measured MVPA, fundamental motor skill competency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development—second edition, and weight classification status used body mass index percentiles. Results: A significant, moderate regression was found (r =.328, P =.001) between fundamental motor skill and MVPA. There was no significant correlation between body mass index percentile and MVPA during the CBAB. In addition, the locomotor subscale was the best predictor for MVPA for children during the CBAB (r =.32, β = 0.82, P <.001). Conclusions: CBAB equally elicited MVPA for normal and overweight preschoolers. Fundamental motor skill competency was associated with MVPA during the CBAB; in particular, locomotor skills were the best predictor for physical activity. Structured activity opportunities that focus on locomotor skills may be a useful integration to prompt more MVPA in a preschool-age population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: With the growing need for children from underserved populations to be physically active it is imperative to create developmentally appropriate and enjoyable physical education programs that promote physical activity. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of mastery and performance climates on physical activity during physical education. Methods: Children (N = 108) in grades K-2 from a rural southeastern elementary school in the United States were randomly assigned to a mastery- or performance-oriented climate. The climates were implemented over 10 school days during regular scheduled physical education classes, and physical activity was measured with pedometers and system for observing fitness instruction time (SOFIT). Two experts in mastery motivational climates served as teachers for the study and were counterbalanced between conditions. Results: Results showed that steps/minute were significantly higher for the mastery condition, and participants in the mastery condition spent significantly less time sitting (p less than 0.001) and in management (p less than 0.001) and more time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA; p = 0.002) and fitness activities (p = 0.001). Conclusion: Results indicate that a mastery approach, which allows children the opportunity to drive their own physical activity, elicits higher step counts and more time spent in MVPA compared with a performance-oriented approach. (Contains 3 tables.)

Performance on the Test of Gross Motor Development (Second Edition; TGMD-2) by children with autism spectrum disorders improves when picture task cards were implemented into the assessment protocol [Breslin, C.M., & Rudisill, M.E. (2011). "The effect of visual supports on performance of the TGMD-2 for children with autism spectrum disorder." "Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly," 28, 342–353]. This preliminary study sought to examine the effects of picture task cards on TGMD-2 performance by preschool-aged children without a diagnosed autism spectrum disorder. Participants ("N"?=?10) completed the TGMD-2 under two counterbalanced conditions (traditional protocol and picture task card protocol) in random order. Mean gross motor quotient scores for the traditional protocol and picture task card protocols were 88.90 and 85.00, respectively. A paired samples t-test indicated that scores were significantly higher in the traditional protocol (t [subscript (9)] = 2.899; [eta][superscript 2]?=?0.48, "p"?=?0.018). Therefore, the use of picture task cards did not result in improved TGMD-2 performance. (Contains 2 tables.)

This article described the faculty-sponsored, faculty-driven approach to undergraduate research (UGR) at Auburn University. This approach is centered around research in the Pediatric Movement and Physical Activity Laboratory, and students can get elective course credit for their participation in UGR. The article also describes how students' roles and responsibilities typically progress with continued involvement in the lab's research projects.