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Interest in the intangible cultural heritage of minority and Indigenous communities has grown in recent years. Minority languages are often a key element of this heritage but require constant safeguarding and practice to be available for future generations. The linguistic landscapes of (in)tangible cultural heritage museums can play a crucial role in this. In this study, the linguistic landscape of the ‘Gerhard Rohlfs’ Museum of the Calabrian Greek Language is therefore explored to understand how it can contribute to the safeguarding of a severely endangered language. A linguistic landscape analysis of 248 photographs revealed a significant presence of Calabrian Greek (Greko), reflecting a more equal status and prestige compared to Italian. The most widely used language, however, was Italian, ensuring museum content was accessible to the presumed main target audience. The lack of English suggests lower international visitor numbers, potentially benefiting the safeguarding of Calabrian Greek by reducing competition with another majority language. The findings thus demonstrate how language choices can support safeguarding measures for languages as intangible cultural heritage, through challenging language hierarchies and hegemonies. Further research should explore tourists’ and locals’ perceptions of such museums and the potential use of minority or endangered languages as sustainable tourism resources.

Focusing on healthcare and migrant professionals, this chapter explores self-reported language beliefs and practices regarding Frisian, a minority language spoken in the officially bilingual province of Fryslân, the Netherlands. The authors critically assess these beliefs and practices to identify alignments and misalignments with top-down language management attempts, emphasising the need for a social justice agenda that aims to improve Frisian language education for migrant healthcare professionals to facilitate their social integration, and improve care for Frisian-speaking patients. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews with healthcare practitioners/managers (n = 15) and educators (n = 9), and questionnaires completed by healthcare managers (n = 20), educators (n = 9), and migrant professionals (n = 16). Findings indicate that healthcare professionals perceive a lack of de jure language policies for Frisian in healthcare, with only receptive language skills considered beneficial for migrant professionals. Migrants generally hold negative views on Frisian in healthcare and express limited interest in learning the language. The authors propose implementing prestige planning measures to foster more positive attitudes towards Frisian among (migrant) healthcare professionals. This would create a foundation for sustainable and effective language acquisition measures, empowering migrants to learn Frisian and, importantly, enhancing their social integration.

Hungarian and its status in education in Slovenia The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia (Article 64) stipulates that in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje, Hungarian is recognised as an official language in addition to Slovene. This provision also implies the right to education in Hungarian as a first language (L1), which is provided by bilingual school programmes in kindergartens, and primary and secondary schools. All pupils, regardless of their nationality and L1, are grouped in common classes and lessons are taught in both languages. Slovene and Hungarian are both subjects and languages of instruction in all other subjects. Additionally, Hungarian can be studied at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Hungarian in educational research Research on bilingual education is conducted by the National Education Institute of Slovenia, as well as the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana and its branch in Lendava/Lendva, the Institute for Educational Research in Ljubljana, and the Faculties of Arts at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Research institutes in Hungary often collaborate with Slovenian research institutes to conduct research on the Hungarian language and on other Hungarian ethnic community-related issues. These research projects also cover different aspects of bilingual education, in particular with regard to teacher competencies and the preparation of teaching materials. Prospects for Hungarian in Slovenia After more than 60 years of existence, bilingual education is proving its vitality and relevance to the linguistic needs of inhabitants of both nationalities in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje. The bilingual school continues to work for the maintenance and development of the Hungarian language and culture, and for the active participation of the two communities in the area and beyond. The further development of Hungarian in Slovenia, however, requires constant attention and support from the state, Hungarian and its status in education in Slovenia The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia (Article 64) stipulates that in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje, Hungarian is recognised as an official language in addition to Slovene. This provision also implies the right to education in Hungarian as a first language (L1), which is provided by bilingual school programmes in kindergartens, and primary and secondary schools. All pupils, regardless of their nationality and L1, are grouped in common classes and lessons are taught in both languages. Slovene and Hungarian are both subjects and languages of instruction in all other subjects. Additionally, Hungarian can be studied at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Hungarian in educational research Research on bilingual education is conducted by the National Education Institute of Slovenia, as well as the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana and its branch in Lendava/Lendva, the Institute for Educational Research in Ljubljana, and the Faculties of Arts at the Universities of Maribor and Ljubljana. Research institutes in Hungary often collaborate with Slovenian research institutes to conduct research on the Hungarian language and on other Hungarian ethnic community-related issues. These research projects also cover different aspects of bilingual education, in particular with regard to teacher competencies and the preparation of teaching materials. Prospects for Hungarian in Slovenia After more than 60 years of existence, bilingual education is proving its vitality and relevance to the linguistic needs of inhabitants of both nationalities in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje. The bilingual school continues to work for the maintenance and development of the Hungarian language and culture, and for the active participation of the two communities in the area and beyond. The further development of Hungarian in Slovenia, however, requires constant attention and suppo

Corsican and its status in education in France On the French island of Corsica, it is estimated that roughly a quarter to a third of the population can speak the Corsican language well, while over half can understand it. The language is officially recognised by the French Constitution as belonging to the heritage of France. Over the past 25 years, several laws, decrees, regulations, and policies have gradually strengthened the institutional support for the Corsican language. Today, French-Corsican bilingual education is most prevalent in pre-school (reaching 59% of all pre-school children in Corsica) and primary school (51%), dropping to 26% in lower secondary education (French: collège), after which bilingual education is virtually non-existent. Corsican is a mandatory subject in pre-school (3 hours per week) and primary school (typically 1.5–3 hours), while this is optional for students in secondary education and beyond (59% choose Corsican in lower secondary education and 13% in higher secondary education, with instruction for 3 hours per week). Corsican in educational research The University of Corsica in Corte offers a complete study programme that specialises in Corsican language and culture. Research projects are typically set up as collaborations between the University of Corsica and the National Higher Institute for Teaching and Education (Institut national supérieur de l’enseignement et de l’éducation – INSPE) in Corsica, and/or the National Centre for Scientific Research (Centre national de la recherche scientifique – CNRS). Important linguistic and sociolinguistic studies have focused on the polynomic character of the Corsican language, that is, the way in which language users accept and embrace linguistic variation as a feature of Corsican, avoiding imposed standardisation. The didactical implications of this phenomenon have also been the subject of educational research. Prospects for Corsican in France

Friulian and its status in education in Italy The Italian State approved Law 482/1999 to protect the many historical linguistic minorities that are present in its territory, including Friulian. Despite emphasising Italian as the official language of the Italian Republic, the law requires the teaching of minority languages in schools, among other provisions. Based on this State Law, the Autonomous Region of Friuli Venezia Giulia passed Regional Law 29/2007, which governs the presence of Friulian in education. Following a challenging law-making process, which saw the State Government firmly oppose the introduction of Friulian as a default educational offer, this Regional Law stipulates that the language should be offered as an optional subject for at least 30 hours per year in kindergartens, primary schools, and lower secondary schools in the Friulian-speaking territory (closely corresponding to the former provinces of Udine, Pordenone, and Gorizia). However, the extent of Friulian class attendance varies across educational levels and provinces. While over 80% of kindergarten pupils in the area of Udine attend Friulian classes, the percentage drops to below 20% in primary schools in the former province of Pordenone and falls to zero in lower secondary schools in the territory of Gorizia. Friulian in educational research Research on the use of Friulian in education began in the late 1970s. Since then, it has been continued by the University of Udine, which is the main and only university in the Friulian-speaking territory, as well as by other entities, such as the Friulian Philological Society. Although a noteworthy development occurred in 2016, when a specific curriculum for the initial training of teachers of Friulian was inaugurated in the MA programme in Primary Teacher Education at the University of Udine, Friulian has limited presence at university. Apart from that curriculum and a few other linguistics, philology, and literature co

Maltese and its status in education in Malta Maltese, or il-Malti, is a Semitic language closely related to Arabic in structure and morphology but is written from left to right and in the Latin script. When Malta became an independent state within the Commonwealth in 1964, the new Constitution highlighted the importance of Maltese by giving it both a national and an official status. Since 2002, Maltese has also been recognised as an official language within the EU. The systematic teaching of Maltese started in the early 20th century, and since 1946, Maltese has always been one of the core subjects in both primary and secondary education. Malta’s current guiding educational framework, the National Curriculum Framework from 2012, does not outline a policy regarding the language of instruction, but does recognise the need for such a policy, and efforts have been undertaken to address these issues of entitlement, culture, and implementation. In response to the increasing numbers of pupils in Maltese schools whose first language is neither Maltese nor English, courses have recently been developed to teach Maltese as a foreign language. Maltese in educational research Educational research has shown that, in most schools, educators are aware of the need to introduce both Maltese and English at an early age and to create activities where both languages are used. The majority of State school educators focus on Maltese, while in Independent and Church schools, however, there is an emphasis on English. Research on Maltese in education is mainly carried out at the University of Malta. Maltese linguistics is also studied internationally, and the International Association of Maltese Linguistics was founded to serve as a platform to stimulate the study of Maltese and connect researchers interested in Maltese linguistics. Prospects for Maltese in Malta Malta has now become a country with a high non-Maltese populat

Italian and its status in education in Slovenia In the Slovene Littoral, Slovene and Italian are official languages and thus they share equal status in public and private life. Learners in this region attend schools either with Slovene as the medium of instruction or with Italian as the medium of instruction, from pre-school to upper secondary education, and receive additional compulsory education in Italian as a second language (L2; Slovene schools) or Slovene L2 (Italian schools). Enrolment is open to all learners, regardless of their linguistic and cultural origin. In Slovenia, Italian is offered as a first language (L1) and L2 in the bilingual areas in the Slovene Littoral and as a foreign language in the rest of the national territory. Italian in educational research Educational research on Italian is conducted by the Department of Italian Studies and Faculty of Education at the University of Primorska, the Science and Research Centre in Koper, the Department of Italian and Faculty of Education at the University of Ljubljana, and the National Education Institute. The University of Primorska and the Science and Research Centre in Koper are the only institutions that conduct research specifically on Italian as L1 and L2. The Department of Italian Studies at the University of Primorska offers a doctoral study programme in Italian L1 literature, L1 and L2 linguistics, and didactics. Prospects for Italian in Slovenia The institutional support for bilingualism, enshrined in the Constitution and legislation of Slovenia, requires continuous monitoring due to the ever-changing social context. The major challenges today are to enhance motivation for learning Italian in school and to ensure constant exposure to the language outside school. To achieve this aim, more systematic solutions are required if schools are to continue to carry out the role of supporting the maintenance and further development of plu

Slovene and its status in education in Austria In a defined area of Southern Carinthia, Austria, Slovene is protected as a minority language. Despite being an officially recognised minority language, the official use of Slovene is limited to few domains. In the 2001 census, 12,554 Austrian citizens reported that they use Slovene in everyday life. Although pre-school education is not part of the Austrian education system, bilingual nursery schools are funded by the province. Bilingual primary and lower secondary education are granted by law in the southern part of Carinthia; this is executed as bilingual teaching in primary school and as language teaching in lower secondary school. There are two bilingual upper secondary schools, and one with Slovene as the language of instruction. At the tertiary level, Slovene can be studied at the universities of Klagenfurt, Graz, and Vienna. Teacher education is provided by the university college of teacher training Carinthia and the universities of Klagenfurt, Graz and Vienna. Outside the legally defined territory, Slovene can be offered as a subject at every educational level. The overall number of pupils and students studying (in) Slovene, however, is low. Slovene in educational research Research on bilingual education and education in Slovene is mostly conducted by the University of Klagenfurt/Celovec (Department of Education and Department of Slavonic Studies), the University College for Teacher Education Carinthia, and sometimes by teacher education students in Graz and Vienna, and at Slovenian universities. The teaching and perception of teaching of Slovene have been investigated using interviews; however, there has been little classroom research. Such studies have consistently highlighted similar issues of bilingual education in Carinthia, indicating that hardly any improvements have been made. Prospects for Slovene in Austria Since the public use of Slove

Prospects for Basque in

Lithuanian and its status in education in Poland The Constitution of the Republic of Poland contains two articles that pertain directly to minority rights, in which it is stated that Polish citizens belonging to national or ethnic minorities have the freedom to maintain and develop their own language and establish educational institutions. The 1991 Act on the Education System grants pupils the right to maintain their national, ethnic, religious, and linguistic identity, and gives them the right to education in their mother tongue, as well as education about its history and culture. Regarding pre-school education for the Lithuanian minority in Poland, there are three kindergartens. Three primary schools and one secondary school offer education in Lithuanian. Lithuanian in educational research For political reasons, educational and sociolinguistic research on minority/regional language communities showed little development between World War II and 1989. Since then, research has focused on the situation of schooling in Lithuanian; however, there have been no studies on Lithuanian as a medium of instruction or as a subject. Prospects for Lithuanian in Poland The prospects for the Lithuanian language among the Lithuanian minority in Poland are in general quite good, as there are still a few primary and secondary schools left that teach in Lithuanian. However, intermarriage between Poles and Lithuanians is becoming increasingly common and this can be considered a certain threat. From one side, intermarriages indicate the assimilation of the minority, and from another, they indicate a threat of losing identity and with that, heritage, tradition, and language.

With the rise of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) in education systems worldwide, recent research has attempted to categorise its various types and orientations. There are, however, limited insights into how different education stakeholders perceive and implement GCE in pedagogical practice. To bridge this gap between theory and practice, we apply a social cartography of GCE types from a recent study to identify management staff’s, teachers’, and pupils’ perceptions of GCE in the context of Dutch (bilingual) secondary education. Based on a content analysis of 12 interviews and three focus groups with pupils, our findings indicate a clear dominance of a liberal orientation towards GCE, focusing on political and moral themes, but also evidence of a critical orientation, as well as liberal-critical and neoliberal-liberal interfaces. We propose that the reflections of practitioners and pupils presented in this study should be used to further develop (Dutch) GCE.

Schools across Europe are experiencing a growing number of multilingual pupils; however, teachers claim to be generally underprepared for dealing with this ever-increasing linguistic and cultural diversity. Initial teacher education often pays insufficient attention to multilingualism, thus there is a call for research on what pre-service teachers learn about the topic during training. Against this background, this small-scale exploratory study sets out to explore pre-service primary teachers' (a) views of multilingualism in education in general, (b) experiences of multilingualism in education as trainee teachers, and (c) self-perceived knowledge and skills acquired and developed during training, in the context of the Netherlands. Based on 195 survey responses, descriptive statistical analyses indicate that the sampled pre-service primary teachers have slightly positive views of multilingualism in education, specifically regarding their opinions on the role of multilingualism in education, focusing on school and home languages, and their tolerance of multilingualism in the classroom and at school. A qualitative content analysis reveals that several pre-service primary teachers have had general experiences of teaching pupils with migrant backgrounds, such as in transition classes (Dutch: schakelklassen), and of teaching pupils who communicate with each other only in their home languages. Challenges in teaching multilingual pupils are also reported, such as the implications of being unable to understand pupils' home languages. Regarding their self-perceived knowledge and skills, the content analysis shows that some pre-service primary teachers in this study are aware of how to encourage collaboration between multilingual pupils to involve their languages in their learning, and have knowledge of language comparison and awareness approaches that can be implemented in multilingual classrooms. A concerning finding, however, is that according to pre-service primary teacher

Yn dit rapport jouwe wy in oersjoch fan besteande taaltechnology (LT) foar it Frysk, mei it each op de taaldata, -middels en -tsjinsten dy’t yn de European Language Grid steane.2 Om’t LT sintraal stiet yn ús deistich libben, lykas yn staveringshifkers, sykmasines, oersetsoftware en firtuele assistintetechnology, is it essinsjeel dat net allinnich nasjonale of mearderheidstalen, mar ek regionale of minderheidstalen genietsje fan digitale lykweardigens en in heech nivo fan digitale fitaliteit – in kearnkomponint fan taalbehâld en -revitalisaasje. It Frysk hat it risiko om dy digitale taallykweardigens net te berikken. Mei it stribjen om de LT-situaasje foar it Frysk te ferbetterjen, presintearje wy in analyze fan de hjoeddeistige data en middels en identifisearje wy de hiaten en útdagings dy’t driuwend it omtinken freegje om derfoar te soargjen dat it Frysk net negatyf beynfloede wurdt troch digitale diglossia (d.w.s. de útsluting fan it Frysk yn digitale fermiddens te’n geunste fan it Nederlânsk). Ut ús analyze fan hjoeddeistige LT-middels foar it Frysk docht bliken dat der wichtige ûntjouwings west hawwe oangeande masine-oersetting, staveringshifkers, ientalige en multymodale korpora – en yn it bysûnder leksikale middels – en dat crowdsourcing-ynset foar inisjativen lykas Mozilla Common Voice relatyf suksesfol binne yn it sammeljen fan brûkbere data foar takomstige stimtechnologyprojekten foar it Frysk. Der is lykwols in tekoart oan, om in pear te neamen, twatalige en meartalige tekstkorpora (parallelle data), taalmodellen, kompûtasjonele grammatikamodellen, tsjinsten foar ynteraksje tusken minsk en kompjûter, sosjale mediadata, as ek transkribearre materialen dy’t brûkt wurde kinne foar de ûntwikkeling fan spraakwerkenners en oare middels. Nettsjinsteande dat de lêste jierren der LT-programma’s foar it Nederlânsk west hawwe, lykas it STEVIN-programma, hawwe de streek- of minderheidstalen yn Nederlân oant no ta gjin omtinken krigen yn dy projekten, In this report, we provide an overview of existing Language Technology (LT) for West Frisian, with reference to the language data, tools, and services listed in the European Language Grid. Since LT is central in our everyday lives, such as in spell checkers, search engines, translation software, and virtual assistant technology, it is essential that not only national or majority languages, but also regional or minority languages enjoy digital equality and a high level of digital vitality – a core component of language maintenance and revitalisation. At risk of not achieving digital language equality is West Frisian, an autochthonous minority language spoken in the officially bilingual province of Fryslân (Friesland) in the north of the Netherlands. In an effort to improve the LT situation for West Frisian, we present an analysis of the current data and resources, as well as identify the gaps and challenges that require urgent attention to ensure West Frisian is not negatively affected by digital diglossia (i. e., its exclusion from digital contexts in favour of Dutch, the national language). Our analysis of current LT resources for West Frisian revealed that there have been significant developments regarding machine translation, spell checkers, monolingual and multimodal corpora, and lexical resources in particular. Crowdsourcing efforts for initiatives such as Mozilla Common Voice have been relatively successful in collecting data that can be utilised in future voice technology projects for West Frisian. There is, however, a lack of bilingual and multilingual text corpora (parallel data), language models, computational grammars, human-computer interaction services, and social media data, among others, as well as of transcribed materials that can be used for the development of speech recognisers and other resources. Furthermore, although there have been LT programmes for Dutch in recent years, such as the STEVIN programme, regional or minority la

Globalisation has led to increasingly more languages being commodified to boost profit; this is particularly evident in museums in areas with a regional or minority language. There is, however, limited research on the implications of language use in multilingual museums for visitors and the (minority) cultures being represented. Based on a critical discourse analysis of 124 photographs, this study explores the linguistic landscape of a museum in a minority context (the Fries Museum, Friesland, the Netherlands) and how the language choices and functions observed may result in tension regarding diversity and inclusion. The findings revealed that the minority language Frisian has a largely symbolic function, whereas the majority language Dutch and the lingua franca English are used to facilitate wider communication and highlight the museum's modernity. Although the linguistic landscape reflects diversity and inclusion, it reinforces (inter)national language ideologies that may negatively impact the museum experience and vitality of Frisian. Further research that employs a mixed-methods comparative approach, which explores, among others, museum visitors’ and staff's awareness and views of multilingualism and minority languages, is needed to provide deeper insights into other possible areas of tension arising from language use that may hinder the development of more inclusive, multilingual museums.