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This study of 137 helicopter pilot trainees investigated individual strategies used to obtain performance feedback during two consecutive phases of their training. Individual and situational factors cited in previous research were investigated as predictors of two feedback seeking behaviors: eliciting (asking directly for feedback) and monitoring (using indirect techniques, such as observing, to gain additional feedback). Both individual and situational factors were significant predictors of feedback seeking behaviors. Feedback seeking costs and the student pilots’external propensity (an individual difference measure assessing their desire for external feedback) were found to be the most consistent predictors of feedback eliciting and monitoring, both within and across the two training phases. In addition, the results point to higher feedback eliciting when performance was rated as low. The implications of this research are discussed, especially with respect to training.

This study examines the influence of individual needs and task characteristics on a multifaceted definition of perceived empowerment using an interactional perspective. Respondents were Hong Kong Chinese employees and most of them lower-level or nonmanagerial level workers in business organizations. We used regression analyses to test a number of hypotheses informed by social psychology theories. The significant findings indicate that perceived empowerment is predicted by individual characteristics (need for achievement, need for power), task situations (receipt of task feedback, competency-based reward system, participation in goal setting) and their interactions. Limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed.

Measurement invariance is usually tested using Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis, which examines the change in the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) when cross-group constraints are imposed on a measurement model. Although many studies have examined the properties of GFI as indicators of overall model fit for single-group data, there have been none to date that examine how GFIs change when between-group constraints are added to a measurement model. The lack of a consensus about what constitutes significant GFI differences places limits on measurement invariance testing. We examine 20 GFIs based on the minimum fit function. A simulation under the two-group situation was used to examine changes in the GFIs (ΔGFIs) when invariance constraints were added. Based on the results, we recommend using Δcomparative fit index, ΔGamma hat, and ΔMcDonald's Noncentrality Index to evaluate measurement invariance. These three ΔGFIs are independent of both model complexity and sample size, and are not correlated with the o...

The fit between a structural equation model and a data set is operationalized as the value of goodness-of-fit indices. The discrepancy between the estimated value and the value indicating perfect fit has three sources: misspecification, error arising from theoretical parsimony in the description of the model (parsimony error), and sampling error. Misspecification, which represents a disparity between “realworld” relationships and relationships in the model, is the most important source of error for researchers. It cannot be accurately assessed, however, unless parsimony error and sampling error are taken into account. Parsimony error occurs in measurement models when secondary relationships are excluded. Secondary relationships are defined here as secondary factor loadings and error term correlations that have small values, no theoretical bases, and no substantive meaning. A simulation was conducted to examine the effects of parsimony error on perfect measurement models and to establish appropriate criteria for model fit when parsimony error is present.

Many statistical techniques were originally invented for the purpose of making comparisons between and among groups of entities. Not surprisingly, difficulties arise when the entities are human bei...

Extreme response styles (ERS) and acquiescence response styles (ARS) may constitute important sources of cross-cultural differences on survey-type instruments. Differences in ERS and ARS, if undetected, may give rise to spurious results that do not reflect genuine differences in attitudes or perceptions. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis is recommended as the most effective method of testing for ERS and ARS and determining whether cultural groups can be meaningfully compared on the basis of factor (latent) means. A detailed numerical example is provided.

Many cross-cultural researchers are concerned with factorial invariance; that is, with whether or not members of different cultures associate survey items, or similar measures, with similar constructs. Researchers usually test items for factorial invariance using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA, however, poses certain problems that must be dealt with. Primary among them is standardization, the process that assigns units of measurement to the constructs (latent variables). Two standardization procedures and several minor variants have been reported in the literature, but using these procedures when testing for factorial invariance can lead to inaccurate results. In this paper we review basic theory, and propose an extension of Byrne, Shavelson, and Muthgn’s (1989) procedure for identifying non-invariant items. The extended procedure solves the standardization problem by performing a systematic comparison of all pairs of factor loadings across groups. A numerical example based upon a large published data set is presented to illustrate the utility of the new procedure, particularly with regard to partial factorial invariance.

Comparing different groups (e.g., cultures, age cohorts) using survey-type instruments raises the question of factorial invariance, that is, whether or not members of different groups ascribe the same meanings to survey items. This article attempts to advance multi-group research by (a) providing a concise summary of the factorial invariance problem, (b) proposing a simplified notation intended to facilitate discussion of the problem, and (c) suggesting a structured approach for testing large models. This procedure is illustrated using an extended example. Two computer programs designed to make the recommended procedures less laborious are offered.

Researchers who use survey-type instruments to perform cross-cultural studies are frequently confronted with factorial non-invariance. This situation arises when the same set of items is used to measure a construct in different cultures, but the relationships between the items and the construct differ significantly across cultures. These (non-invariant) items are usually eliminated or ignored when calculating an index value representing the level of the construct. This paper proposes that under certain conditions non-invariant items ought to be retained, since they may constitute the only sources of information concerning cross-cultural differences. A new procedure is described that decomposes a cross-cultural difference into a component due to item responses, and a second component due to unequal item-construct relationships. A numerical example based upon a large published data set is presented, and the results of the new procedure are compared with those obtained using simple summated scores and regression-weighted factor scores.

This article describes the development of three domain-specific measures of individual differences in feedback propensities. In a series of studies, the authors identify the primary dimensions, psychometric characteristics, and construct validation evidence for internal ability, internal propensity, and external propensity for feedback. Confirmatory factor analysis supports the three dimensional representation. Correlations between the new scales and existing measures of personality are consistent with theoretical predictions. Theoretical and practical extensions of the current work are discussed.

Individual and situational predictors of feedback-seeking cost were studies for 145 student helicopter pilots, using the Fishbein-Ajzen theory of reasoned action as a theoretical foundation. Predic...