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This paper explores the potential for using multiple particle size fractions in a hierarchical geochemical sediment fingerprinting approach to the assessment of changes in sediment sources through time within a small Mediterranean peri-urban catchment. Conventional sediment fingerprinting has focussed on the This study explores this approach using 2), on the outskirts of Coimbra in central Portugal. The climate is humid Mediterranean. Catchment geology is 56% sandstone (in the east), 41 % marly limestone (in the west) and 3 % alluvium. Current land-use is 56% woodland, 4 % agricultural and 40% urban (mainly residential, but also including a recently constructed enterprise park (5%) and major highway (1%)). Recent urbanization has largely occupied former agricultural land. The study adopts a multi-proxy sediment fingerprinting approach to assessment of changes in sediment sources, based on geochemical (elemental) characterization of the four different size fractions of fluvial bed-sediment and soil samples, using a Niton x-ray fluorescence (XRF) elemental analyser. Sampling of fluvial sediment was carried out at 33 sites within the stream network (including all significant tributaries, downstream sites and the catchment outlet). Samples were collected in July 2018 and November 2018 following contrasting ‘late-wet-season’ and ‘end-of-dry-season’ events. In July 2018, samples of potential sediment sources were collected including: (i) soil surface (0-2cm) samples at 64 locations, (ii) 17 samples from eroding channel margin sites, and (iii) 15 samples of road sediment. All fluvial and soil samples were sieved to obtain the four target size fractions. The elemental geochemistry of each sample fraction at all fluvial and source sites was derived using the XRF analyser. (These results were added to similar datasets previously obtained on three occasions in 2012-15 in a period of enhanced urban constructional disturbance). Differences (and similarities) in geochemical signatures between the different size fractions at each survey date at and between each tributary and potential source site were assessed using a range of statistical techniques. Messages arising are discussed. For each size fraction and survey date, Bayesian unmixing models were used in a hierarchical (confluence-based) fashion to assess the contributions of sub-catchments to downstream sites and the catchment outlet. Modelling results for the two 2018 events were validated by comparing them with suspended sediment records collected at five tributary locations and at the catchment outlet. Although overall, the modelling was successful in indicating and quantifying significant changes in sediment sources through time within the catchment, uncertainties in interpretation of the multiple fractions are identified and discussed.

An ability to identify and quantify changes in sediment sources and erosion within catchments would be of great use for landscape managers and planners. This is particularly the case in peri-urban catchments, which are characterized by complex and dynamically changing land-use mosaics – and where today’s planning decisions may be crucial as regards avoiding or exacerbating erosional, water quality and flooding problems. This study explores the potential for a sediment fingerprinting approach to provide a cost-effective way of assessing changes in sediment sources within a small peri-urban catchment. The study focuses on the Ribeira dos Covões catchment (6.2 km2), on the outskirts of Coimbra in central Portugal. The climate is humid Mediterranean and the geology is 56% sandstone, 41% marly limestone and 3% alluvium. Current land-use is 56% woodland, 4% agricultural and 40% urban (mainly residential, but also a recently constructed enterprise park (5%) and major highway (1%)). Recent urbanization has largely occupied former agricultural land. The study adopts a multi-proxy sediment fingerprinting approach, based on geochemical (elemental) characterization of fluvial fine bed-sediment and soil samples, using a Niton x-ray fluorescence elemental analyser. Sampling of fluvial sediment was carried out at 33 sites within the stream network (including all significant tributaries, downstream sites and the catchment outlet). Samples were collected in July 2018 and November 2018 following contrasting ‘late wet season’ and ‘end of dry season’ events. In addition, in July 2018 composite samples of potential sediment sources were collected, including (i) soil surface (0-2cm) samples at 64 representative locations, (ii) 17 samples from eroding channel margin sites, and (iii) 15 samples of road sediment. All samples were sieved to obtain

Understanding sediment dynamics in peri-urban catchments constitutes a research challenge because of the spatiotemporal complexity and variability of land-uses involved. This study investigates differences in the concentration of total sediments (TSC) and suspended sediments (SSC) in the small peri-urban Mediterranean Ribeira dos Cov&otilde, es catchment (40% urban area) in central Portugal. Suspended sediment responses at the catchment outlet (E) and in three upstream sub-catchments, during periods of urbanization (2011&ndash, 2013) and stabilizing land-use (2017&ndash, 2018) are compared for storm-event datasets encompassing similar ranges of rainstorm sizes and antecedent rainfall condition. The Quinta sub-catchment, with the lowest urban area (22%) but subject to major construction activities affecting 17% of its area, led to highest TSC and SSC during urbanization (attaining 4320 mg/L and 4184 mg/L, respectively), and a median reduction of 38% and 69%, respectively, during stabilization. Esp&iacute, rito Santo sub-catchment, with highest urban area (49%) and minor construction activities, displayed similar median TSC in both periods (258&ndash, 240 mg/L) but highest SSC reduction (76%), highlighting the impact of the anthropogenic disturbance mainly on fine-particle sediments and a good connectivity with the stream. Porto Bordalo sub-catchment, with 39% urban area and subject to the construction of a four-line road covering 1.5% of its area, showed the lowest TSC and SSC concentrations and the lowest median reductions in both periods (31% and 64%, correspondingly), mainly because of the impact of an unplanned retention basin established with soil from the construction site. Overall, median TSC and SSC reduced 14% and 59% at E, from urbanization to stabilization. Information about sediment dynamics should guide stakeholders in establishing strategies to reduce sediment loads and mitigate the impacts on urban aquatic ecosystems.

Wales has a long history of coal and metal mining, with over 1,300 abandoned metal mines across the country. These mines pollute a number of rivers and lead to the failure of Water Framework Directive (WFD) standards for heavy metals. This includes Nantymwyn, an abandoned lead mine, which has two streams that flow into the River Tywi, and metal loads can be traced downstream for 65km. Nantymwyn, in common with many of Wales’ lead mines, has complex and poorly understood underground workings, which have degraded in the 90 years since closure. The mine is believed to have been worked during pre-Roman times and, is noted historically from AD 1530. The Nant y Bai stream flows through extensive spoil heaps, as well as over old workings, and has inflows from adits, over ground and subterranean inputs. Consequentially, conventional spot sampling of the metal concentrations as has been historically carried out by government agencies does not accurately convey the problems caused by the mine.Tracer dilution and synoptic sampling was determined at Nantymwyn in July 2019 to calculate stream flow and heavy metal loadings and their variation downstream. Sodium bromide was injected upstream of the mine site, and once it reached a ‘plateau state’ in the stream it was sampled at 34 points over the 2km of stream. These samples were analysed for metal and bromide concentrations using Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), which allowed One-Dimensional Transport with Inflow and Storage (OTIS) modelling to predict pollutant flows. Additionally, monthly sampling and salt dilution flow gauging at 12 sites along the stream has been conducted since February 2019. The second, smaller stream at Nantymwyn is monitored monthly at six points.Preliminary results show a large temporal variation in flows and concentrations across both streams, with varying loads of lead, but a consistent zinc load in the smaller stream. Initial results from the synoptic sampling show flows consistent with the salt gauging carried out after the stream had been sampled. This research will determine the extent of unseen inflow and outflows upon metal pollution on the River Tywi and allow mitigation strategies to be evaluated.

Although erosional impacts of rainforest logging are well established, changes in hydrological dynamics have been less explored especially in the post-logging recovery phase following repeat-logging cycles and mature phase of oil palm plantation cycles. This study addresses this gap by comparing hydrological characteristics of five catchments in a steep land area of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo on a gradient of disturbance and recovery – twice-logged forest, 22 years recovery (LF2); multiple-logged forest, 8 years recovery (LF3); mature oil palm, 20 years old (OP); and two primary forests (PF and VJR) as controls. Each catchment was instrumented with water depth (converted to discharge), conductivity, temperature, and turbidity sensors, and a raingauge connected to a solar-powered datalogger recording data at 5-minute intervals from November 2011 to August 2013. Data were analysed via the flow-duration curve (FDC) supplemented by the runoff coefficient (RR) and coefficient of variation in discharge (QVAR) for aggregated characteristics, as well as via a combination of the Dunn's test and multiple-regression at the storm event scale for focused hydrological dynamics. Results show that OP is characterised by a relatively low RR (0.357) but with high responsiveness during storm events and very low baseflow (38.4% of total discharge). Discharge in the LF3 (RR = 0.796) is always the highest while having an intermediate level of responsiveness. LF2 with longer-term recovery shown a reduction in terms of discharge (RR = 0.640). Being the benchmark, the undisturbed forest (PF) has the most buffered storm response with the highest baseflow (67.9% of total discharge). Stormflow and baseflow are anomalously high and low respectively in the near-primary VJR catchment, but this probably reflects the shallow soils and short-stature rainforest associated with its igneous and metamorphic lithology. From a management aspect, although hydrological recovery is more advanced in the 22 years than in the 8-years post-logging catchment, full recovery is yet to be achieved and might be hastened by enrichment planting of the degraded forest. The low baseflow and flashy nature of the mature oil palm have major implications for downstream water supply in ENSO periods and flooding in La Nina periods. Steep lands in the humid tropics are best avoided from any form of landscape disturbance.

The identification of sediment sources is important for catchment management, but few studies have been performed in Mediterranean areas. This study uses a multi-proxy sediment fingerprinting approach to explore sources and dynamics of fluvial sediments in a rapidly urbanizing Portuguese peri-urban catchment. X-Ray Fluorescence was used to characterize the elemental geochemistry of sediments collected within the stream network after three storm events in 2012 and 2015. A range of statistical techniques, including hierarchical cluster analysis, was used to identify discriminant sediment properties and similarities between fine bed-sediment samples of tributaries and downstream sites. Quantification of sediment supply from upstream sub-catchments was undertaken using established sediment fingerprinting approaches. The geochemistry of the sediments was found to be influenced by both lithology and land-use changes. In 2012 the sandstone sub-catchment provided 75% of the

Purpose This work studies the implications of different traffic patterns for heavy metal and solid pollution generation processes following rainfall events with contrasting antecedent meteorological conditions, at a periurban catchment. The aim is to provide information on the pollution processes and their potential environmental impacts for urban areas. Materials and methods Seven campaigns were performed covering winter, spring, and summer conditions, for rainfall events with different antecedent conditions. Four types of roads were monitored: low traffic, average traffic, heavy traffic with demanding driving situations (break and turning), and heavy traffic with high vehicle speed (motorway profile). Samples were taken at the beginning, middle and end of the events to measure within event variation in concentration. Analytical standard procedures were used to quantify pH, conductivity, turbidity, total solids, volatile solids, suspended solids, volatile suspended solids and heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) in the total and dissolved forms (as to infer the particulate fraction), namely copper, zinc, cadmium and lead. Results and discussion The collected data show a direct relation among the number of vehicles and/or the driving manoeuvres performed by them and the amount of solids and heavy metals present in the wash out overland flow collected. An important fraction of the heavy metals is washed off in the particulate form, which represents an increased problem since the road overland flow is directed to green/brown areas and for the local aquatic ecosystems. Maximum copper values recorded exceed 0.6 mh L−1 , zinc exceeds 5 mg L−1 , lead 0.1 mg L−1 and cadmium 0.01 mg L−1 . Values are higher after long dry spells and reduce concentration throughout the rainfall events. Conclusions An important part of the heavy metals (with relevance for zinc and lead) are washed off in the particulate form, pollutants are typically related to the amount of traffic, and especially to the existence of driving manoeuvres. The summer events show the highest values, due to the accumulation of pollutants during the long dry spells. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Purpose: Relatively little is known in the Mediterranean environment about changes in streamflow during urban development in partially urbanized peri-urban catchments. This paper explores the modification of streamflow regime as a consequence of the construction of an enterprise park, a major road, and expansion of residential areas, leading to urban areas increase from 32 to 40 % in a small catchment (6.2 km2), located in the periphery of one of the main cities in central mainland Portugal. Materials and methods: The study was carried out over five hydrological years (October 2008–September 2009 to October 2012–September 2013), including two initial years of pre- and three following years of post-additional urban development. Streamflow was recorded by a V-notch weir at the catchment outlet at 5-min intervals. Rainfall was recorded at a weather station 0.5 km north of the catchment and by five tipping-bucket raingauges installed in January 2011 within the study catchment. Streamflow was converted into runoff and split into baseflow and stormflow components by applying a mathematical low-pass digital filter. Streamflow differences were investigated through changes in (i) annual runoff coefficients, (ii) annual baseflow index, (iii) seasonal baseflow index and stormflow coefficient, and (iv) storm event analysis. Results and discussion: Annual runoff coefficient ranged from 14 to 21 % and storm runoff coefficient from 9 to 14 %, both between the driest 2011/12 and wettest 2012/13. Although these differences were influenced by inter-annual weather variability, a comparison between years with similar rainfall before and after additional urban development showed a 43 % increase in storm runoff. Impacts on streamflow were also noticed through changes on hydrograph: (i) regression lines of storm runoff against rainstorm parameters exhibited higher vertical positions in 2012/13 than 2008/09, (ii) gradual increase in peak flow but with a clear distance between pre- and post- additional urbanization, (iii) quicker response time from 60–75 min to 40–45 min between both periods, and (iv) decrease in recession time from 21–29 h to 7–9 h for the same periods. Conclusions: The dispersed urban pattern and permeable soils provide many overland flow sinks, favouring relatively low storm runoff of the catchment. Nevertheless, the enlargement of impervious surfaces (from 12.8 to 17.0 %) and particularly the storm drainage system installed in new urban areas led to great changes on rainfall–runoff event responses. Urban planning should consider the landscape mosaic of peri-urban areas in order to maximize water infiltration and minimize the impacts on streamflow regime.

Although there have been extensive studies on the hydrological and erosional impacts of logging, relatively little is known about the impacts of conversion into agricultural plantation (namely rubber and oil palm). Furthermore, studies on morphological impacts, sediment-bound chemistry and forensic attribution of deposited sediment to their respective sources are scarcer. This chapter introduces the potential for using the multi-proxy sediment fingerprinting technique in this context. Featuring pilot projects in two major flood-prone river systems in Malaysia, the studies explore application of geochemistry-based sediment source ascription. The geochemical signatures of sediment mixtures on floodplains were compared to sediments from upstream source tributaries. The tributaries were hypothesised to have different geochemical signatures in response to dominant land management. The first case study took place in the Segama River system (4,023 km2) of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo where a mixture of primary forest, logged-forests and oil palm plantations were predominant. The second case study was in the Kelantan River Basin (13,100 km2) with two major tributaries (Galas River and Lebir River) where logged-forests and rubber and oil palm plantations are dominant land-uses. Both case studies demonstrated the applicability of this method in ascribing floodplain deposited sediment to their respective upstream sources. Preliminary results showed that trace elements associated with fertilisers (e.g. copper and vanadium) contribute to agricultural catchment signatures. Alkaline and alkaline-earth elements were linked to recently established oil palm plantations due to soil turnover. Mixing model outputs showed that contributions from smaller, more severely disturbed catchment are higher than those from larger but milder disturbed catchments. This method capitalises on flood events to counter its adverse impacts by identifying high-priority sediment source areas for efficient and effective management.

Over the few last decades, increasing population and expansion of urban areas has triggered faster land degradation. This manuscript reviews the most significant soil and water degradation processes in urban areas and their environmental impacts. Urban soils are partially sealed and subject to severe compaction, erosion and contamination from several sources (e.g. vehicular traffic and inappropriate waste disposal), which restrict their ability to provide ecosystem services. Water resources are also under great urban pressure, due to changes in flow processes, namely increasing runoff and flashiness linked to enhanced flood hazard, and decreasing water quality and degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Persistent pollutants such as heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been found in urban environments. Long-term monitoring programs to quantify better the magnitude of degradation processes and their environmental impacts are still required. Runoff, erosion and pollutant sources as well as their transport within the landscape are highly variable, and the impact of distinct urban patterns on water, sediment and pollutant connectivity between the sources and water bodies remains a research challenge. Information regarding land degradation processes and their spatio-temporal dynamics within urban catchments will help to guide decision-makers and policy actors towards sustainable solutions to achieve urban sustainability and the good ecological status of aquatic ecosystems.

One of the greatest challenges to developing time series from non-annual ring forming tropical trees arises before a sampling campaign can begin. Tropical trees can be exceptionally hard, often containing chemicals and minerals which make the wood near non-biodegradable. Such trees have considerable palaeoclimatic potential due to their longevity and landscape survival times, but are challenging to sample non-destructively. The hardest of these trees, the Ironwoods, are often the target of sampling campaigns as their properties are associated with longevity. Our objective was to develop a low-technology drill-borer capable of extracting cores from the Borneo Ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm and Binn) of a suitable diameter for carrying out stable isotopic analysis and radiocarbon analysis (necessary for chronology development in non-annual ring forming trees). Due to the inaccessibility of tropical sampling field sites our criteria for development included: construction to be from readily available and replaceable parts; power to be derived from batteries; the main body [drill] to be of a weight and size appropriate to sampling in remote locations; a system operable with minimal training by a non-expert. The cores produced by our drill system were of high quality, and samples could successfully be taken from extremely hard trees without charring. The biggest limitation to the operation of our system was that core segments snapped and had to be sequentially removed from the tree and stored separately. This trial is the first successful non-destructive sampling of living E. zwageri, a species which has considerable palaeoclimatic potential.

Summary Planning of semi-urban developments is often hindered by a lack of knowledge on how changes in land-use affect catchment hydrological response. The temporal and spatial patterns of overland flow source areas and their connectivity in the landscape, particularly in a seasonal climate, remain comparatively poorly understood. This study investigates seasonal variations in factors influencing runoff response to rainfall in a peri-urban catchment in Portugal characterized by a mosaic of landscape units and a humid Mediterranean climate. Variations in surface soil moisture, hydrophobicity and infiltration capacity were measured in six different landscape units (defined by land-use on either sandstone or limestone) in nine monitoring campaigns at key times over a one-year period. Spatiotemporal patterns in overland flow mechanisms were found. Infiltration-excess overland flow was generated in rainfalls during the dry summer season in woodland on both sandstone and limestone and on agricultural soils on limestone due probably in large part to soil hydrophobicity. In wet periods, saturation overland flow occurred on urban and agricultural soils located in valley bottoms and on shallow soils upslope. Topography, water table rise and soil depth determined the location and extent of saturated areas. Overland flow generated in upslope source areas potentially can infiltrate in other landscape units downslope where infiltration capacity exceeds rainfall intensity. Hydrophilic urban and agricultural-sandstone soils were characterized by increased infiltration capacity during dry periods, while forest soils provided potential sinks for overland flow when hydrophilic in the winter wet season. Identifying the spatial and temporal variability of overland flow sources and sinks is an important step in understanding and modeling flow connectivity and catchment hydrologic response. Such information is important for land managers in order to improve urban planning to minimize flood risk.

Laboratory experiments were used to investigate the influence of simulated cracks and roots on soil water repellency (SWR) dynamics with and without basal drainage impedance in wetting–drying cycles. Observations and measurements were taken following water application equivalent to 9.2-mm rainfall and then periodically during 80 h of drying. In total, 180 experiments were carried out using 60 samples of three homogeneous, reconstituted soils with different organic matter contents and textures, but of similar initial severity of SWR [18% molarity of an ethanol droplet (MED)]. Water flowing down the cracks and roots left the soil matrix largely dry and water repellent except for vertical zones adjacent to them and a shallow surface layer. A hydrophilic shallow basal layer was produced in experiments where basal drainage was impeded. During drying, changes in SWR were largely confined to the zones that had been wetted. Soil that had remained dry retained the initial severity of SWR, while wetted soil re-established either the same or slightly lower severity of SWR. In organic-rich soil, the scale of recovery to pre-wetting MED levels was much higher, perhaps associated with temporarily raised levels (up to 36% MED) of SWR recorded during drying of these soils. With all three soils, the re-establishment of the original SWR level was less widespread for surface than subsurface soil and with impeded than unimpeded basal drainage. Key findings are that as follows: (1) with unimpeded basal drainage, the soils remained at pre-wetting repellency levels except for a wettable thin surface layer and zones close to roots and cracks, (2) basal drainage impedance produced hydrophilic basal and surface layers, (3) thorough wetting delayed a return to water-repellent conditions on drying, and (4) temporarily enhanced SWR occurred in organic-rich soils at intermediate moisture levels during drying. Hydrological implications are discussed, and the roles of cracks and roots are placed into context with other influences on preferential flow and SWR under field conditions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The mining and processing of metal ores in the UK has left a legacy of environmental degradation, and abandoned metal mines still pose a significant threat to terrestrial and fluvial environments. Flow gauging, water quality and geophysics were combined in an integrated assessment of surface and subsurface hydrological contamination at Esgair Mwyn, an abandoned mine in Ceredigion, Wales. Heavy metals discharged from the site are polluting downstream watercourses, leading to widespread Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) compliance failures. Through salt water dilution gauging and water quality sampling, a daily efflux of 876 g of heavy metals was calculated, with contaminant mobilisation occurring mainly in two primary surface streams draining an exposed tailings heap. Electrical resistivity tomography subsurface imaging found a seepage plane within the tailings lagoon wall, whilst the main tailings heap became increasingly saturated with depth. A large adjacent field also had a high potential to convey pollutants in solution, yet its morphological characteristics have limited transmission, as the area acts as a passive treatment type system. With remediation of already polluted water both difficult and expensive, this approach provides a cost-effective way to identify the origins and pathways of contaminants, informing mitigation strategies focussed on containment. Esgair Mwyn is not an isolated case, as abandoned metal mines release at least 860 t of heavy metals annually into UK water bodies. These techniques could reduce or prevent abandoned metal mine hydrological pollution for decades to come, and enable associated UK water bodies to comply with future water quality standards.

Suspended sediment concentrations (SSC) and the duration of high SSC are important for river ecology and water resource conservation. Using annual and storm-event datasets, this paper explores the hypothesis that key suspended sediment variables increase along a land-use disturbance gradient in hilly terrain in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo). Five small (1.7–4.6 km2) catchments of increasing disturbance history – primary forest, old growth virgin jungle reserve, twice-logged forest, multiple-logged forest and mature oil palm – were instrumented from late 2011 with dataloggers and sensors to record river stage, turbidity and rainfall. The oil palm catchment had 4–12 times greater mean discharge-weighted SSC (587 mg L–1), annual sediment yield (1128 t km–2 y–1), median event peak SSC, and duration of SSC above 1000 mg L–1 than in the other catchments. The multiple-logged catchment (last logged around 2004) has SSC characteristics close to values for primary forest, possibly due to increased ground protection against erosion afforded by low understorey regrowth and/or depletion of erodible sediment by multiple logging episodes. Results demonstrate that in hilly terrain even heavily logged rainforest has high value in safeguarding water quality and reducing erosion, whereas oil palm requires careful land management, especially of road runoff and ground cover.

Freshwaters provide valuable habitat and important ecosystem services but are threatened worldwide by habitat loss and degradation. In Southeast Asia, rainforest streams are particularly threatened by logging and conversion to oil palm, but we lack information on the impacts of this on freshwater environmental conditions, and the relative importance of catchment versus riparian‐scale disturbance. We studied 16 streams in Sabah, Borneo, including old‐growth forest, logged forest, and oil palm sites. We assessed forest quality in riparian zones and across the whole catchment and compared it with stream environmental conditions including water quality, structural complexity, and organic inputs. We found that streams with the highest riparian forest quality were nearly 4 °C cooler, over 20 cm deeper, had over 40% less sand, greater canopy cover, more stored leaf litter, and wider channels than oil palm streams with the lowest riparian forest quality. Other variables were significantly related to catchment‐scale forest quality, with streams in the highest quality forest catchments having 40% more bedrock and 20 times more dead wood, along with higher phosphorus, and lower nitrate‐N levels compared to streams with the lowest catchment‐scale forest quality. Although riparian buffer strips went some way to protecting waterways, they did not maintain fully forest‐like stream conditions. In addition, logged forest streams still showed signs of disturbance 10–15 years after selective logging. Our results suggest that maintenance and restoration of buffer strips can help to protect healthy freshwater ecosystems but logging practices and catchment‐scale forest management also need to be considered.

Increases in the frequency of large to extreme rainfall events are widely predicted with global warming, but evidence from the humid tropics is hampered by a paucity of long-term data. This paper a...

Although the influences of urban land use on water quality have been widely investigated, the impacts of different urbanization patterns, particularly in Mediterranean environments, are not well understood. Focussing on a Portuguese peri-urban catchment with 40 % urban cover, this paper explores (1) the impact of areas with differing urban extent and storm drainage system on streamwater quality and (2) temporal variations driven by season and storm events of differing magnitude, intensity and antecedent weather. Water quality was assessed at the catchment outlet (E) and for three upstream tributaries: (1) Porto Bordalo (PB), 39 % urban with a new major road and piping of some overland flow from impervious surfaces directly into the stream; (2) Espirito Santo (ES), 49 % urban, mostly comprising detached houses surrounded by gardens, and with overland flow infiltrating into downslope pervious soils; and (3) Quinta (Q), 22 % urban with partial piping of overland flow from a recent enterprise park area. Water samples were collected at different stages in storm hydrograph responses to ten rainfall events from October 2011 to March 2013. The water quality variables analysed included chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (Kjeldahl nitrogen [Nk-N], ammonium [NH4–N], nitrate [NO3–N] and total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) and heavy metals (Zn and Cu). Urban areas had great impact on COD, with the highest median concentrations in ES and the lowest in Q. In ES, fertilizing lawns and gardens may have been responsible for its higher median NO3–N concentrations. High concentrations of heavy metals were recorded in PB and Q, probably due to the piping of road runoff directly into the stream. Generally, higher pollutant concentrations were recorded in the first storm events after the summer drought due to the flushing of accumulated solutes and a lower dilution effect, with Nk-N and NH4–N exceeding water quality standards. Over the wet season, increasing soil moisture favoured greater flow connectivity between runoff processes from pollutant sources and the stream network, leading to a higher proportion of samples exceeding pollution thresholds. No direct relationship was identified between urban extent and water quality, possibly due to the overriding impact of different storm drainage systems and flow connectivities of different urban patterns. Hydrological regime, linked to seasonal changes, also exerted a major influence on the water quality dynamics. Information on the spatiotemporal dynamics of pollutants, linked to different urban patterns and storm drainage systems, should help enable urban planners to minimize the adverse impacts of urbanization on aquatic ecosystems.

Summary Forest hydrology has been widely investigated, but the impacts of different woodland types on hydrological processes within a peri-urban catchment mosaic are poorly understood. This paper investigates overland flow generation processes in three different types of woodland in a small (6.2 km2) catchment in central Portugal that has undergone strong urban development over the past 50 years. A semi-natural oak stand and a sparse eucalyptus stand on partly abandoned peri-urban land and a dense eucalyptus plantation were each instrumented with three 16 m2 runoff plots and 15 throughfall gauges, which were monitored at c. 1- to 2-week intervals over two hydrological years. In addition, surface soil moisture content (0–5 cm) and hydrophobicity (0–2 cm, 2–5 cm and 5–7 cm) were measured at the same time as overland flow and throughfall. Although all three woodland types produced relatively little overland flow (

Long-term (21–30 years) erosional responses of rainforest terrain in the Upper Segama catchment, Sabah, to selective logging are assessed at slope, small and large catchment scales. In the 0.44 km 2 Baru catchment, slope erosion measurements over 1990–2010 and sediment fingerprinting indicate that sediment sources 21 years after logging in 1989 are mainly road-linked, including fresh landslips and gullying of scars and toe deposits of 1994–1996 landslides. Analysis and modelling of 5–15 min stream-suspended sediment and discharge data demonstrate a reduction in storm-sediment response between 1996 and 2009, but not yet to pre-logging levels. An unmixing model using bed-sediment geochemical data indicates that 49 per cent of the 216 t km −2 a −1 2009 sediment yield comes from 10 per cent of its area affected by road-linked landslides. Fallout 210 Pb and 137 Cs values from a lateral bench core indicate that sedimentation rates in the 721 km 2 Upper Segama catchment less than doubled with initially highly selective, low-slope logging in the 1980s, but rose 7–13 times when steep terrain was logged in 1992–1993 and 1999–2000. The need to keep steeplands under forest is emphasized if landsliding associated with current and predicted rises in extreme rainstorm magnitude-frequency is to be reduced in scale.

Stable carbon isotope ( δ 13 C) series were developed from analysis of sequential radial wood increments from AD 1850 to AD 2009 for four mature primary rainforest trees from the Danum and Imbak areas of Sabah, Malaysia. The aseasonal equatorial climate meant that conventional dendrochronology was not possible as the tree species investigated do not exhibit clear annual rings or dateable growth bands. Chronology was established using radiocarbon dating to model age–growth relationships and date the carbon isotopic series from which the intrinsic water-use efficiency (IWUE) was calculated. The two Eusideroxylon zwageri trees from Imbak yielded ages of their pith/central wood (±1 sigma) of 670 ± 40 and 759 ± 40 years old; the less dense Shorea johorensis and Shorea superba trees at Danum yielded ages of 240 ± 40 and 330 ± 40 years, respectively. All trees studied exhibit an increase in the IWUE since AD 1960. This reflects, in part, a response of the forest to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Unlike studies of some northern European trees, no clear plateau in this response was observed. A change in the IWUE implies an associated modification of the local carbon and/or hydrological cycles. To resolve these uncertainties, a shift in emphasis away from high-resolution studies towards long, well-replicated time series is proposed to develop the environmental data essential for model evaluation. Identification of old (greater than 700 years) ringless trees demonstrates their potential in assessing the impacts of climatic and atmospheric change. It also shows the scientific and applied value of a conservation policy that ensures the survival of primary forest containing particularly old trees (as in Imbak Canyon and Danum).

Heavy metal concentrations and potential bioavailability are reported for sediment in a shallow flood detention lake surrounded by reclaimed, smelter-contaminated land. A range of sediment column proxy indicators is used to explore changes in pollution dynamics with remediation. Sediment concentrations of Pb and Zn are high at approximately 600 and 20,000 mg kg(-1), respectively. Less than 7% of total Pb is potentially bioavailable following sequential extraction as opposed to 47% of Zn. Metal transfer mechanisms to lake sediment include detrital inputs, scavenging by particulates and biogeochemical precipitation. Sedimentary evidence indicates that detrital inputs to the lake declined following land reclamation after which it is proposed that dissolved inputs increased with leaching of reworked waste material. Whilst downcore metal profiles may be subject to post-depositional change, diatom analysis suggests more recent improvements in water quality. The potential for post-remediation pollution episodes relating to metal release from historic sedimentary stores should be considered in future remediation strategies.

This paper describes the design, operation and performance of a field-portable ‘drip-type’ simulator and erosion measurement system. The system was constructed specifically for soil erosion research in the humid tropics and has been used extensively in Malaysian Borneo. The simulator is capable of producing replicable storms of up to 200 mm h−1 intensity and 20–30 minutes duration with a drop-size distribution close to that of natural storms of such intensity (D50 of simulated rainfall is 4·15 mm at 200 mm h−1 and 3·65 mm at 160 mm h−1, D50 measured during natural rainfall = 3·25 mm). The simulator is portable and simply constructed and operates without a motor or electronics, thus making it particularly useful in remote, mountainous areas. The erosion measurement system allows assessment of: (1) rainsplash detachment and net downslope transport from the erosion plot; (2) slopewash (erosion transported by overland flow); and (3) infiltration capacity and overland flow. The performance of the simulator–erosion system compared with previous systems is assessed with reference to experiments carried out in primary and regenerating tropical rainforest at Danum Valley (Malaysian Borneo). The system was found to compare favourably with previous field simulators, producing a total storm kinetic energy of 727 J m−2 (over a 20-minute storm event) and a kinetic energy rate of 0·61 J m−2 s−1, approximately half that experienced on the ground during a natural rainfall event of similar intensity, despite the shorter distance to the ground. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The conventional view of soil water repellency is that it promotes overland flow and soil erosion, but this is not always borne out by observations. This study aimed to isolate the effects of repellency on long-unburnt and recently burnt terrain on infiltration, overland flow and erosion at the small plot scale (0·36 m2). Rainfall simulations (30 min; intensity 100 mm h−1), using untreated water, and water treated with surfactants to eliminate repellency, were conducted on in situ repellent soils in fire-prone Eucalyptus globulus plantations, north-central Portugal at (i) a long-unburnt site with and without litter, and (ii) a recently burnt site. On long-unburnt terrain, the mean overland flow coefficient (33%) was 16 times higher and mean slopewash was 23 times higher under repellent compared with wettable conditions. On recently burnt terrain, no overland flow was recorded under wettable conditions, while under repellent conditions the mean coefficient was 70%. The water storage capacity of the litter layer under 10-year-old eucalyptus stands for dry antecedent conditions was at least 3 mm water depth per cm litter depth, implying at least a delay to the onset of overland flow. Severe repellency (36% ethanol) was found to persist through a 30-min storm (100 mm h−1) when a litter layer was present. A continuous wetting front was observed in the upper ∼1 cm of exposed soil, indicating a breakdown in repellency at the time of observation. Below ∼1 cm, repellent, dry soil conditions generally persisted through the simulated storm event. A major implication is that prediction of hydrological impacts of repellency must also take into account the infiltration characteristics of any litter layer and any non-repellent soils, if present. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Prescribed (controlled) fire has recently been adopted as an important wildfire-fighting strategy in the Mediterranean. Relatively little research, however, has assessed its impacts on soil erosion and soil quality. This paper investigates hillslope-scale losses of soil, organic matter and selected nutrients before and after a ‘worst-case scenario’ prescribed fire in a steep, shrub-vegetated catchment with thin stony soil in central Portugal. Comparison is made with soil erosion measured: (1) on a nearby hillslope burned by wildfire and monitored at the hillslope scale; and (2) on long-unburned terrain at small-plot, hillslope- and catchment-scales. Hillslope-scale pre- and post-fire soil erosion was recorded over periods of 6 weeks to 5 months for (1) 9.5 months pre-fire and 27 months post-fire in the prescribed fire catchment, and (2) c. 3 years post-fire at the wildfire site. Organic matter content, pH, total N, K2O, P2O5, Ca2 + and Mg2 + were measured in the eroded sediment and in pre- and post-prescribed fire surface soil. Results indicate that: (1) both the prescribed fire and the wildfire caused expected marked increases in erosion compared with unburned terrain; and (2) the hillslope-scale post-prescribed fire soil losses (up to 2.41 t ha− 1 yr− 1) exceeded many reported plot-scale post-prescribed fire and post-wildfire erosion rates in the Mediterranean. As a comparison, post-fire erosion for both fire types was less than that caused by some other forms of common soil disturbance (e.g. types of tillage) and even that on undisturbed shrubland in low rainfall areas of the region. Total estimated post-prescribed fire particulate losses of organic matter and nutrients represent only 0.2–2.9% of the content in the upper 2 cm of soil, suggesting only a modest fire effect on soil quality, although this may reflect in part a lack of extreme rainfall events following the fire. The longer-term implications for soil conservation of repeated prescribed fire in the Mediterranean are explored and future research priorities identified.

When rain forest is logged, rills and gullies are often initiated on heavily disturbed and compacted terrain components; whether and for how long they continue to enlarge following logging is critical as regards the recovery and sustainability of the regenerating forest. This paper examines these two issues in logged rain forest in northeastern Borneo. Results are presented of an investigation into how soil erosion rates and surface topography varies in selectively logged forests at different stages of regeneration (up to 15 years after logging) in Danum Valley, eastern Sabah, Malaysia. Measurements were made of changes in ground level and surface roughness at over 100 transect sites over periods of 1–15 years using the erosion bridge (microprofiler) technique. In the complex mosaic of the post-logging regenerating forest, attention focused on key features, notably abandoned logging tracks, gullies, heavily disturbed or compacted areas and road-related landslides and comparisons are made with primary forest terrain. The role of extreme rainstorms in controlling the temporal pattern of post-logging erosion in both regenerating and primary forest is demonstrated. The different situations in which rills and gullies initiated during or following logging enlarge or disappear in post-logging terrain are highlighted. The implications of the results for slope evolution and sustainable rain-forest management policies are briefly considered.

Detailed information on post-logging sediment dynamics in tropical catchments is required for modelling downstream impacts on communities and ecosystems. Sediment tracing methods, which are potentially useful in extending to the large catchment scale and longer time scales, are tested in primary and selectively logged rainforest catchments of Sabah, Borneo. Selected nutrient (P and N) and trace metal (Ni and Zn) concentrations are shown to discriminate surface, shallow subsurface and deep subsurface sediment sources. Analysis of channel-stored fine-sediment samples and use of an unmixing model allow the relative importance of these vertical sediment sources to be estimated and erosion processes to be inferred for catchments of contrasting size.

In a first step to obtain a proxy record of past climatic events (including the El Nino- Southern Oscillation) in the normally aseasonal tropical environment of Sabah, a radial segment from a recently fallen dipterocarp (Shorea superba) was radiocarbon dated and subjected to carbon isotope analysis. The high-precision radiocarbon results fell into the ambiguous modern plateau where sev- eral calibrated dates can exist for each sample. Dating was achieved by wiggle matching using a Bayesian approach to calibration. Using the defined growth characteristics of Shorea superba, prob- ability density distributions were calculated and improbable dates rejected. It was found that the tree most likely started growing around AD 1660-1685. A total of 173 apparent growth increments were measured and, therefore, it could be determined that the tree formed one ring approximately every two years. Stable carbon isotope values were obtained from resin-extracted wholewood from each ring. Carbon cycling is evident in the 'juvenile effect', resulting from the assimilation of respired car- bon dioxide and lower light levels below the canopy, and in the 'anthropogenic effect' caused by increased industrial activity in the late-nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This study demonstrates that palaeoenvironmental information can be obtained from trees growing in aseasonal environ- ments, where climatic conditions prevent the formation of well-defined annual rings. Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Increased attention has focussed on using mineral magnetic measurements as a proxy for heavy metal related sediment quality since magnetic concentration often correlates with total heavy metal concentrations, thus providing rapid and non-destructive screening of contaminated samples. Mineral magnetic measurements are being used in the assessment of sediment quality in the Lower Swansea Valley (South Wales, UK) a uniquely contaminated environment with a legacy of 250 years of non-ferrous smelting. Fendrod Lake is an in-line flood detention lake (created in the mid-1980s) on the polluted Nant-y-Fendrod stream, which drains an area contaminated by atmospherically deposited heavy metals and metal-rich smelter waste buried within the reclaimed and remediated valley floor. Heavy metals are accumulating in the lake sediment column. Positive correlations found between heavy metal (Zn and Pb) concentrations and magnetic susceptibility (x) in contaminated soils (mineral waste and aerial fallout) are not clearly observed in the lake sediment column (where the use of proxy measures of sediment quality is of greatest interest). Downcore profiles of X and major and minor elements, and information on metal speciation, indicate two controlling factors: (1) sediment source and contaminant delivery mode and (2) water column sediment/contaminant interaction dynamics linked to lake productivity.

event, yielding clockwise and anticlockwise hysteretic loops respectively. In contrast, metal concentrations, although high throughout the winter storm event, were diluted somewhat during the storm peak itself. The Pb and Cu appear to be supplied by quickflow processes and transported in close association with fine sediment, whereas Zn and Cd are delivered to the channel and lake by slower subsurface seepage in dissolved form. In the winter 2001 event, antecedent soil moisture and shallow groundwater levels were anomalously high and seepage sources of dissolved metals dominated. Downstream of the lake, Pb and Cu levels and suspended sediment were high in the summer storm, but low in the winter storm, suggesting retention with deposition of fine sediment in the lake during the latter. In the winter storm, Zn and Cd levels were higher downstream than upstream of the lake, perhaps because of additional seepage inputs from the surrounding slopes, which failed to have an impact during summer. An understanding of the complex interplay of antecedent soil moisture and the dynamics of subsurface seepage pathways in relation to the three-dimensional distribution of sources is important in modelling heavy metal fluxes and levels in contaminated urban catchments. Copyright  2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Soil level changes over four years at 50 sites in three types of post-fire eucalyptus and pine forest management practices (natural pine seedling regeneration; eucalyptus regrowth from coppiced stumps; and deep-(rip-) ploughed areas planted with eucalyptus seedlings) in the Agueda Basin, Portugal are reported. Average ground lowering at regrowth sites was high during the first year after fire (up to an estimated 18 mm), declining sharply by the third year with vegetation growth and litter cover development. In the first year after rip-ploughing, there was greater surface lowering (up to 27 mm recorded), with recovery within three–four years. This sharp post-ploughing reduction in soil loss is attributed to stone lag development through erosion of fines. Soil erosion resulting from a wildfire—rip-ploughing cycle is estimated to be up to 174 t ha−1, which would lead to ultimate physical degradation for typically thin soils within 50–100 years. Soil surface roughness decreased slightly or remained virtually stable for the moist Agueda Basin stony soil compared with a model of increased roughness for dry Mediterranean stony soils. This difference is attributed to moist conditions encouraging vegetation growth and rapid fermentation of organic matter together with transported sediment infilling surface indentations. The value of a ground-level change approach, and of the soil erosion bridge in particular, in soil erosion studies is discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Water repellency (hydrophobicity) of soils is a property with major repercussions for plant growth, surface and subsurface hydrology, and for soil erosion. Important advances have been made since the late 1980s in identifying the range of environments affected by water repellency, its characteristics and its hydro-geomorphological impacts. This review summarises earlier work, but focusses particularly on these recent advances and identifies remaining research gaps. The associations of water repellency with (a) soils other than coarse-textured ones, (b) an expanding list of plant species, and (c) a widening range of climates other than seasonally dry types have been recurrent themes emphasised in recent literature. Nevertheless, knowledge about the extent of water repellency amongst world soils is still comparatively sparse. Its origin by the accumulation of long-chained organic compounds on or between soil particles is now widely accepted, but understanding of their exact chemical composition and means of attachment to particle surfaces remains incomplete. The transient nature of water repellency has been found to be mainly associated with fluctuations in soil moisture, but the precise processes and required conditions for the changes from hydrophobic to hydrophilic and vice versa are so far only poorly understood. Significant advances relating to the hydro-geomorphological impacts of hydrophobic layers have been made since the late 1980s in identifying and separating the various effects of such layers on surface and subsurface water flow. It has become evident that these effects in turn are influenced by variables such as the frequency and effectiveness of flow pathways through hydrophobic layers as well as their position and transitory behaviour. Recent literature has continued to highlight the role of water repellency in promoting soil erosion and it is now recognised that it can promote rainsplash detachment and soil loss not only by water, but also by wind. Major research gaps, however, remain in (a) isolating the erosional impact of water repellency from other factors, and (b) identifying the exact role of, and the interactions between the different variables controlling development and effectiveness of flow pathways through hydrophobic soil. Improved understanding of the effects of soil water repellency will enable its overall role in surface and subsurface hydrological and erosional processes to become more clearly defined.

Soil hydrophobicity affects the susceptibility of soils to erosion in a variety of ways (e.g. increased aggregate stability, reduced infiltration capacity, enhanced overland flow), but there are problems concerning the overall assessment of its erosional impact. Three current problems are discussed: (1) poor isolation of hydrophobicity from other effects; and poor understanding of its overall impact; (2) areally, at slope and catchment scales; and (3) temporally, over periods of months or years rather than on a storm basis. These problems are highlighted with reference to the literature and to research in Portugal on highly hydrophobic forest soils. A conceptual model relating erosion risk to three key aspects of soil hydrophobicity (temporal contiguity, spatial contiguity and the thickness of any overlying hydrophilic soil) is presented in order to provide a framework for future research into hydrophobicity–soil erosion links.

Small bounded plots were used to investigate dissolved nutrient losses in overland flow in eucalyptus and pine forests in northern Portugal following understorey fires. Losses of NON, POCa2+, Mg2+ and K+ were measured over 19 months during the first 2-3 years after fire. Solute losses in overland flow increased after fire in eucalyptus and pine terrain due to the mineralization of litter and vegetation and increased overland flow. The data suggest that (i) elevated losses persist for at least 2 and 3 years at the pine and eucalyptus sites respectively and (ii) soluble losses of POK+ in a post-fire cycle may exceed those adsorbed to eroded material. Losses of POalthough relatively small, are potentially the most detrimental to soil fertility and forest productivity because of the limited opportunity for P replenishment and correspondingly high P losses adsorbed to eroded sediment. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The impact of different logging techniques on nutrient losses in burnt eucalyptus and pine forests in northern Portugal was investigated. A variety of logging techniques is used in the region resulting in varying amounts of slash debris on the slopes. The efficacy of this litter in reducing soil erosion is well established but less is known about the impact on nutrient losses. Small bounded plots were used to examine the impact of varying amounts of slash debris and pine-needle cover on nutrient losses in overland flow and adsorbed to eroded sediment over 19 months during the first two-three years after fire. Nutrient losses in solution and adsorbed to eroded sediment were substantially higher on burnt terrain due to increased erosion and overland flow generation and high nutrient concentrations at the soil surface in the burned forests. Post-fire logging techniques in eucalyptus forests resulting in large amounts of litter debris on the slopes are effective at reducing eroded sediment nutrient losses but less effective at reducing losses in solution. In pine forests, litter is largely ineffective in reducing solute and sediment nutrient losses. However, a covering of pine needles was shown to be highly effective in reducing eroded sediment nutrient losses and to a lesser extent solute losses. Conservational methods of logging are suggested for both eucalyptus and pine forests in the region. In the absence of such measures, the sustainability of short-rotation eucalyptus forestry is questioned in northern Portugal. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In the last two decades, Portuguese forests have undergone important changes in land use and management practices, some of which are posing significant problems as regards long-term sustainability of forestry. This paper examines the degradation processes associated with two events: deep ploughing prior to planting (termed ‘ripploughing’) and forest fire. The research design comprised plot and catchment approaches in which fluxes of water, sediment and solutes for rip-ploughed and burnt pine forest were monitored for the first year after ploughing and fire respectively. Although rip-ploughed areas experienced very high erosion rates at the plot scale (up to 51 t ha−1 yr−1) and enhanced catchment runoff due to increased overland flow (up to 50% of rainfall), catchment sediment yield was small because of sediment storage at the bases of slopes and in channel heads. For burned pine, the destruction of the vegetation and litter layer led to sharp increases in catchment runoff and nutrient losses both as dissolved and suspended sediments. Despite sediment loss at the plot scale being below 3 t ha−1 in the first year after the fire, the catchment suspended sediment loss in storm events was several orders of magnitude higher than for the partly rip-ploughed catchment.

In newly burnt and unburnt pine and eucalyptus forest in Portugal, overland flow and soil losses were monitored to assess the impacts of the following post-fire treatments: application of different quantities of logging litter; rip-ploughing compared with minimum tillage prior to planting eucalyptus seedlings; and clearance of pine needles and vegetation. Eucalyptus logging litter reduced soil losses by up to 95 per cent. The impact of pine logging litter was equivocal, but removal of pine needles increased soil losses elevenfold. Implications for soil longevity, soil quality and land management strategy are discussed.

A laboratory programme of water drop penetration tests is used to investigate the nature of hydrophobicity of soils in burnt and unburnt Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus pinaster forest areas of northern Portugal. Variations in hydrophobicity of air-dried soil with soil depth, soil particle size fraction, land use and burn history are assessed. Results differ from those found by many other studies in several respects: (1) fire was not found to enhance hydrophobicity, as unburnt and old-burn soils are as hydrophobic as newly-burnt ones; (2) hydrophobicity was found to be characteristic of soils from the surface down to the weathered (Cw) horizon rather than confined to a near-surface layer, (3) it is also associated with the finer rather than the coarser size fractions of the soils. Soils under E. globulus are distinctly more hydrophobic than those under P. pinaster. Implications for the generation of overland flow are briefly explored.

Archival rainfall data are used to investigate changes in drought frequency and severity in Sabah and other parts of northern Borneo since the late nineteenth century. Two measures of drought severity are used: drought duration (given by the number of consecutive months with less than 100 mm rain); and drought intensity (indexed by the cumulative rainfall deficit below 100 mm per month of a drought sequence). Within northern Borneo dry periods are very short (>3 months) and infrequent in Sarawak, south-western Sabah, Brunei and central and western Kalimantan; droughts occur seasonally, but are comparatively short in north-western Sabah; droughts are less frequent) but more severe in eastern Sabah and parts of eastern Kalimantan. In coastal Sabah and Brunei, there has been a statistically significant increase in the frequency and severity of droughts since the late 1960s. At Sandakan, two drought-prone epochs in 1877–1915 and 1968–92 (each experiencing five droughts of at least 4 months duration) are identified, separated by a 52-year period that was nearly drought-free. At Sandakan also, the ecologically damaging 1982–3 drought was neither as long or severe as those of 1903 and 1915. Links with El Niño-Southern Oscillation events are found to be not as strong as previous studies have suggested. Possible implications of the spatial and temporal patterns in drought magnitude-frequency for differences in tropical rain forest character within the region are discussed.

With a focus on the Danum Valley area of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, this special issue has as its theme the future of tropical rainforests in a changing landscape and climate. The global environmental context to the issue is briefly given before the contents and rationale of the issue are summarized. Most of the papers are based on research carried out as part of the Royal Society South East Asia Rainforest Research Programme. The issue is divided into five sections: (i) the historical land-use and land management context; (ii) implications of land-use change for atmospheric chemistry and climate change; (iii) impacts of logging, forest fragmentation (particularly within an oil palm plantation landscape) and forest restoration on ecosystems and their functioning; (iv) the response and resilience of rainforest systems to climatic and land-use change; and (v) the scientific messages and policy implications arising from the research findings presented in the issue.

The context and challenges relating to the remaining tropical rainforest are briefly reviewed and the roles which science can play in addressing questions are outlined. Key messages which articles in the special issue, mainly based on projects of the Royal Society South East Asia Rainforest Research Programme (SEARRP), have raised of relevance to policies on land use, land management and REDD+ are then considered. Results from the atmospheric science and hydrology papers, and some of the ecological ones, demonstrate the very high ecosystem service values of rainforest (compared with oil palm) in maintaining high biodiversity, good local air quality, reducing greenhouse emissions, and reducing landslide, flooding and sedimentation consequences of climate change—and hence provide science to underpin the protection of remaining forest, even if degraded and fragmented. Another group of articles test ways of restoring forest quality (in terms of biodiversity and carbon value) or maintaining as high biodiversity and ecological functioning levels as possible via intelligent design of forest zones and fragments within oil palm landscapes. Finally, factors that have helped to enhance the policy relevance of SEARRP projects and dissemination of their results to decision-makers are outlined.

In an earlier special issue of this journal, Marsh & Greer summarized forest land use in Sabah at that time and gave an introduction to the Danum Valley Conservation Area. Since that assessment, during the period 1990–2010, the forests of Sabah and particularly those of the ca 10 000 km 2 concession managed on behalf of the State by Yayasan Sabah (the Sabah Foundation) have been subject to continual, industrial harvesting, including the premature re-logging of extensive tracts of previously only once-logged forest and large-scale conversion of natural forests to agricultural plantations. Over the same period, however, significant areas of previously unprotected pristine forest have been formally gazetted as conservation areas, while much of the forest to the north, the south and the east of the Danum Valley Conservation Area (the Ulu Segama and Malua Forest Reserves) has been given added protection and new forest restoration initiatives have been launched. This paper analyses these forest-management and land-use changes in Sabah during the period 1990–2010, with a focus on the Yayasan Sabah Forest Management Area. Important new conservation and forest restoration and rehabilitation initiatives within its borders are given particular emphasis.

R.P.D. Walsh1, M.A. Clarke2, K. Bidin3, W.H. Blake4, N.A. Chappell5, I. Douglas6, N. Ramli3, A.M. Sayer1, W. Sinun7, J. Larenus8 and J. Hanapi8 1University of Wales Swansea, UK; 2National Soils Research Institute, UK; 3Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia; 4University of Plymouth, UK; 5Lancaster University, UK; 6Manchester University, UK; 7Innoprise Corporation Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia; 8Danum Valley Field Centre, Malaysia

Despite soil piping being increasingly reported from the humid tropics, quantitative assessments of the role of pipeflow in runoff generation and sediment supply in humid tropical catchments remain lacking. This paper assesses pipeflow and streamflow suspended sediment dynamics in small humid tropical rainforest catchments in Danum Valley, Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Pipeflow and streamflow in two small catchments were continuously monitored between December 2002 and June 2004 using pressure-transducer probes behind V-notch weirs; suspended sediment was continuously monitored with turbidity probes. Monthly flow and sediment load data show that a single monitored pipe in one catchment accounted for 47.2% of a stream's discharge and 21.6% of the suspended sediment load over the monitoring period. Anecdotal evidence from unmonitored pipes suggests the total contribution from pipes to streamflow discharge and sediment loads may be much higher. In general, absolute monthly pipe and stream sediment yields increase with monthly rainfall and pipe or stream discharge. Fourteen storm event responses are considered in detail. Pipe and stream discharge-suspended sediment responses to storm events are rapid and are characterised by clockwise hysteresis. An inverse relationship between the percent contribution of sediment to streamflow from a monitored pipe and rainfall intensity was identified, indicating that in large, intense rainstorms other sediment sources (including slopewash and unmonitored pipes) become more important. Mechanisms of pipe discharge and suspended sediment generation are discussed and implications for future runoff, sediment and channel development models are briefly outlined.

Soil water repellency is generally thought to enhance runoff responses, thus representing a potentially important factor in hydrological modelling. Attempts to quantify its impacts have, however, either focused on soil profiles or plot scales and/or have been unable unequivocally to isolate repellency effects from other hydrologically important parameters. This research gap is addressed here by comparing responses of the same soil or terrain at a range of scales in highly repellent and wettable states, thereby limiting the impact of other variables. Hydrological responses of forest soils in north-central Portugal are assessed using laboratory wetting and rainfall simulation experiments at the point (0.002 m 2 ) and microplot scales (0.12 m 2 ), and field runoff responses from plot (16 m 2 ) and catchment scales (0.33 km 2 ). At the point scale, water repellency reduced soil wetting by a factor of >700 and increased mean runoff for a microplot from 1.5 to 53% during the first 9 min of a simulated rainstorm. At the field-plot scale impacts are evident, but less dramatic, with 16 of 45 of storms following dry, repellent conditions producing >3% overland flow compared with only one of 60 storms following moist, wettable conditions. In contrast, at the catchment scale, storm runoff responses were lower following dry, repellent, conditions than with moist, wettable conditions, although the time-to-peak was on average 62% shorter for the former compared with the latter conditions. The reduced correspondence between the scales is attributed mainly to increased capture of locally generated overland flow at the catchment scale by bypass routeways that are under-represented at point and plot scales. It is concluded that addressing water repellency in distributed hydrological modelling has considerable potential for improving predictions for affected regions, but that impacts may vary considerably from those found in the Portuguese case example. Key parameters for determining its impacts are its severity, spatial distribution, transient characteristics, and the character and spatial distribution of any bypass routeways and wettable subsoil.

The /// and //// montados of Spain and Portugal cover about 6 million ha and form open savannah-type woodland comprising cork (Quercus suber) and holm (Q. rotundifolia and Q. ilex) oaks. Following their decline until the 1960s, these land management practices have become valued at national and international policy-making levels for their biodiversity, aesthetic qualities and potential for tourism and recreation, but comparatively little attention has been given to consequences for soil conservation. In this paper, the soil erosion risks associated with these land uses are compared with those of selected alternative forestry and agroforestry land uses. Selected soil properties, results of rainfall simulation experiments and field observations of erosion features for (a) two //// montado and three /// dehesa sites differing in terms of grazing pressure and tree type, (b) six alternative forestry plantations of various ages and (c) an olive grove are ranked according to relative erosion risk. None of the /// dehesa or //// montado sites has an overall mean rank indicating an erosion risk as low as that in established forestry plantations (at least four-five years old). One (heavily grazed) /// dehesa has a relatively high overall mean rank indicating a relative erosion risk only slightly lower than that obtained for an erosion-prone, newly ploughed and planted eucalyptus plantation. It is concluded that present day /// dehesa and //// montado variants can be prone to severe erosion if stocking rates and/or tillage frequency become excessive. The advantages and limitations of the ranking methodology used are discussed. Copyright # 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.