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Objective The transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) has been implicated in cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in vitro as well as in vivo; however, it is unknown if activation of NF-kappaB plays a mandatory role in the hypertrophic process. Here we characterize the importance of NF-kappaB signaling in moderate and severe left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy in rats with chronic pressure overload induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) infusion. Methods and results Electrophoretic mobility shift assay analysis revealed that Ang II infusion (2.5 microg/kg per min) for 6 days increased LV NF-kappaB/DNA-binding activity in a biphasic manner in Sprague-Dawley rats. Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) (100 mg/kg per day), an NF-kappaB inhibitor, abolished Ang II-induced NF-kappaB activation and concomitant increase in tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene expression, while activator protein-1/DNA binding was not affected. Inhibition of NF-kappaB signaling for 6 days significantly attenuated Ang II-induced increases in LV/body weight ratio, LV mean wall thickness and cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area, without compromising LV systolic function. Moreover, PDTC abolished Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and interstitial fibrosis, and attenuated the gene expression of type I collagen. In contrast, a moderate LV hypertrophy induced by Ang II at a lower dose (0.5 microg/kg per min) was not associated with a significant activation of NF-kappaB, and PDTC treatment had no effect on the hypertrophic indices. Conclusion Our in-vivo data indicate a critical role of NF-kappaB signaling in the advanced stage of the remodeling process, whereas development of moderate LV hypertrophy is not dependent on NF-kappaB activation.

The Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase inhibitor ouabain has been shown to trigger hypertrophic growth of cultured cardiomyocytes; however, the significance of endogenous ouabain-like compound (OLC) in the hypertrophic process in vivo is unknown. Here we characterized the involvement of OLC in left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy induced by norepinephrine (NE) and angiotensin II (Ang II) infusions in rats. Administration of NE (300 microg/kg/h) via subcutanously implanted osmotic minipumps for 72 h resulted in a significant increase in left ventricular weight to body weight (LVW/BW) ratio (P0.001) and a substantial up-regulation of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) gene expression (13.2-fold, P0.001). NE infusion induced a transient increase in plasma OLC levels at 12 h (P0.05), which returned to control levels by 72 h. Adrenalectomy markedly reduced both basal and NE-induced increase in plasma OLC levels. LVW/BW ratio was not modulated by adrenalectomy; however, ANP gene expression was blunted by 44% (P0.01) and 47% (P0.05) at 12 and 72 h, respectively. In agreement, adrenalectomy reduced up-regulation of ANP without affecting LV mass in rats infused with Ang II (33 microg/kg/h). Administration of exogenous ouabain (1 nM to 100 microM) for 24 h had no effect on ANP gene expression in cultured neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. However, the up-regulation of ANP mRNA levels induced by the alpha-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine (1 microM) was markedly enhanced by ouabain (100 microM) (5.6-fold vs. 9.6-fold, P0.01). These data show that OLC as an adrenal-derived factor may be required for the induction LV ANP gene expression during the hypertrophic process.

Long-term dietary fatty acid intake alters the development of left ventricular hypertrophy, but the linking signaling pathways are unclear. We studied the role and underlying signaling mechanisms of dietary fat intake in the early phase of the hypertrophic process. Rats assigned for 4 weeks of high-oil, high-fat, or standard diet were subjected to angiotensin II (Ang II; 33 microg/kg/h, subcutaneous) or vehicle infusion for 24 h. The Ang II-induced increase in left ventricular mRNA levels of hypertrophy-associated genes was higher in rats fed the high-oil diet compared with the standard diet. Western blotting revealed that, in parallel with changes in gene expression, the high-oil diet increased c-Jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation (P < 0.001). Ang II increased p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation in rats fed the high-fat diet (3-fold; P < 0.01). The increase in transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1) DNA binding activity in response to Ang II was higher in rats fed the high-oil diet compared with those fed the standard diet (P < 0.001). Ang II downregulated inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA levels in fatty acid-supplemented groups compared with the standard diet group. These results show that dietary fat type modulates the early activation of hypertrophic genes in pressure-overloaded myocardium involving the distinct activation of AP-1 and MAPK signal transduction pathways.

Background— The precise function of angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT 2 -R) in the mammalian heart in vivo is unknown. Here, we investigated the role of AT 2 -R in cardiac pressure overload. Methods and Results— Rats were infused with vehicle, angiotensin II (Ang II), PD123319 (an AT 2 -R antagonist), or the combination of Ang II and PD123319 via subcutaneously implanted osmotic minipumps for 12 or 72 hours. Ang II–induced increases in mean arterial pressure, left ventricular weight/body weight ratio, and elevation of skeletal α-actin and β-myosin heavy chain mRNA levels were not altered by PD123319. In contrast, AT 2 -R blockade resulted in a marked increase in the gene expression of c-fos, endothelin-1, and insulin-like growth factor-1 in Ang II–induced hypertension. In parallel, Ang II–stimulated mRNA and protein expression of atrial natriuretic peptide were significantly augmented by AT 2 -R blockade. Moreover, PD123319 markedly increased the synthesis of B-type natriuretic peptide. Furthermore, the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and fibroblast growth factor-1 was downregulated by Ang II only in the presence of AT 2 -R blockade. Conclusions— Our results provide evidence that AT 2 -R plays a functional role in the cardiac hypertrophic process in vivo by selectively regulating the expression of growth-promoting and growth-inhibiting factors.

The orphan receptor APJ and its recently identified endogenous ligand, apelin, are expressed in the heart. However, their importance in the human cardiovascular system is not known. This study shows that apelin-like immunoreactivity is abundantly present in healthy human heart and plasma. Gel filtration HPLC analysis revealed that atrial and plasma levels of high molecular weight apelin, possibly proapelin, were markedly higher than those of mature apelin-36 itself. As assessed by quantitative RT-PCR analysis, left ventricular apelin mRNA levels were increased 4.7-fold in chronic heart failure (CHF) due to coronary heart disease (p

After approval by the Local Ethical Committee, brain microvessel endothelial cells from human cadavers were isolated by enzymatic digestion and gradient centrifugation. Basal levels of endothelin-1 (ET) in the supernatant increased over time (3 h, 18.3 +/- 4.3 pg/ml; 6 h, 31.3 +/- 1.1 pg/ml; 24 h, 88.0 +/- 5.7 pg/ml; 48 h, 86.3 +/- 11.2 pg/ml, mean +/- SD). Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) (270 U/ml) increased ET concentration dose-dependently: 3 h, 190 +/- 70%; 24 h, 217 +/- 39%; 48 h, 207 +/- 5%; TNF-alpha at 210 U/ml: 3 h, 137%; 24 h, 170%; 48 h, 212% (values are relative changes from control, run in parallel to the stimulated wells). Interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1 alpha) (38.8 U/ml) also increased ET dose-dependently: (3 h, 129%; 24 h, 161%; 48 h, 212%; IL-1 alpha 1.4 U/ml: 3 h, 116%; 24 h, 122%; 48 h, 180%). Lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) had a dual effect on ET, increasing ET in the first 3 h but reducing it by the end of the 48-h observation period. This effect was not dose-dependent in the concentration range tested: Lp(a) 450 micrograms/ml; 3 h, 188%; 24 h, 91%; 48 h, 85%; Lp(a) 360 micrograms/ml: 3 h, 180%; 24 h, 94%; 48 h, 52%). Lp(a) reduced the stimulatory effect of cytokines on ET release. Maximal values at 48 h were TNF-alpha 207%, TNF-alpha + Lp(a) 91%, IL-1 alpha 212%, IL-1 alpha + Lp(a) 64%. In HPLC analysis, the total ET-like immunoreactivity co-eluted with the synthetic human ET standard. A cell culture of human brain microvessel endothelial cells was established. TNF-alpha and IL-1 alpha increased ET secretion, whereas Lp(a) had a dual effect. When given together, Lp(a) reduced the effect of cytokines on ETs.

Endothelin-1 is involved in mechanical load–induced cardiac growth processes; it also has effects on contractility. The interaction of endothelin-1 and the Frank-Starling response is unknown. The present study aimed to characterize the role of endothelin-1 in the regulation of the Frank-Starling response, one of the major mechanisms regulating cardiac contractile force, in both normal and hypertrophied hearts. Nontransgenic rat hearts and hypertrophic hearts of hypertensive double transgenic rats harboring human angiotensinogen and renin genes were studied in a Langendorff isolated heart setup with a liquid-filled balloon inside the left ventricle used to measure contractile parameters. The rats were studied at compensated phase, before showing any signs of heart failure. Compensated hypertrophy in double transgenic rat hearts resulted in improved contractility at a given level of preload when compared with nontransgenic rat hearts. Hearts of both rat lines showed preserved Frank-Starling responses, that is, increased contractile function in response to increased end-diastolic pressure. The mixed endothelin A/B receptor antagonist bosentan attenuated the Frank-Starling response by 53% ( P

The mechanisms mediating the activation of cardiac gene expression during pressure overload are not fully understood. We examined whether angiotensin II-induced activation of ventricular gene expression is related to blood pressure and ventricular mass or requires other factors by infusing angiotensin II in sham-operated and adrenalectomized rats. In sham-operated rats, angiotensin II (33 microg/kg x h, sc) produced a significant increase in mean arterial pressure (measured by telemetry) within 3 h. Mean arterial pressure (up to 45 h) and the increase in left ventricular hypertrophy in adrenalectomized rats during angiotensin II infusion were similar to those in sham-operated rats. Angiotensin II produced 3.6-fold (P0.01) and 20.4-fold (P0.001) increases in ventricular atrial natriuretic peptide mRNA levels at 12 and 72 h, respectively. Angiotensin II infusion for 12 h also significantly increased the ventricular mRNA levels of B-type natriuretic peptide (5.2-fold) and adrenomedullin (1.4-fold). Adrenalectomy either abolished (atrial natriuretic peptide and adrenomedullin) or blunted (B-type natriuretic peptide) the early activation of ventricular gene expression by angiotensin II. The baseline synthesis of atrial natriuretic peptide, B-type natriuretic peptide, and adrenomedullin in the ventricle remained unchanged in adrenalectomized rats. In conclusion, our results indicate that factors derived from the adrenals are required for angiotensin II-induced early activation of cardiac gene expression.

We have previously detected in cardiac patients severalfold higher levels of endothelin (ET) in the pericardial fluid (PF) than in the plasma (PL). We postulated that this is due to different activities of neutral endopeptidase (NEP) in the two compartments. With approval of the ethical committee and informed consent by 32 patients (18 men, 14 women, aged 62 +/- 2 years; NYHA II-IV), PF was taken during cardiac surgery. PL samples were obtained on the day of surgery before premedication. ET was measured by radioimmunoassay after extraction (SepPakC18). NEP activity was measured by a microplate-based kinetic enzyme assay over 120 min. PF ET (78 +/- 11 pg/ml) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than PL ET (3.38 +/- 0.48 pg/ml). The PF/PL ratio was 38 +/- 14, range 7-200. PF ET was inversely related to the NYHA state of the patients, whereas a similar relation was not found with PL ET. PL and PF ET levels did not correlate. In HPLC, the total immunoreactive ET activity co-eluted with the human ET standard. PF NEP activity (2.26 +/- 0.12 U/l) was lower (p < 0.05) than PL NEP (3.62 +/- 0.22 U/I). PL NEP was not different from that of healthy controls (3.28 +/- 0.22 U/L; n = 50). No correlation was found between NEP in either compartment and the NYHA state of the patients. ET concentration and NEP activity did not correlate in PF or PL. We conclude that ET is extremely high in the PF of cardiac patients and that this is not caused by altered NEP activity.