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Recent studies suggest that the hydrogen (H) density in the exosphere and geocorona might differ from previously assumed values by factors as large as 2. We use the SAMI3 (Sami3 is Also a Model of the Ionosphere) and Comprehensive Inner Magnetosphere-Ionosphere models to evaluate scenarios where the hydrogen density is reduced or enhanced, by a factor of 2, relative to values given by commonly used empirical models. We show that the rate of plasmasphere refilling following a geomagnetic storm varies nearly linearly with the hydrogen density. We also show that the ring current associated with a geomagnetic storm decays more rapidly when H is increased. With respect to these two space weather effects, increased exosphere hydrogen density is associated with reduced threats to space assets during and following a geomagnetic storm.

A new, high-resolution field-widened spatial heterodyne spectrometer (FW-SHS) designed to observe geocoronal Balmer α (Hα, 6563 A) emission was installed at Pine Bluff Observatory (PBO) near Madison, Wisconsin. FW-SHS observations were compared with an already well-characterized dual-etalon Fabry-Perot Interferometer (PBO FPI) optimized for Hα, also at PBO. The FW-SHS is a robust Fourier transform instrument that combines a large throughput advantage with high spectral resolution and a relatively long spectral baseline (~10 times that of the PBO FPI) in a compact, versatile instrument with no moving parts. Coincident Hα observations by FW-SHS and PBO FPI were obtained over similar integration times, resolving powers (~67,000 and 80,000 at Hα) and fields of view (1.8° and 1.4°, respectively). First light FW-SHS observations of Hα intensity and temperature (Doppler width) versus viewing geometry (shadow altitude) show excellent relative agreement with the geocoronal observations previously obtained at PBO by FPI. The FW-SHS has a 640 km/s (14 A) spectral band pass and is capable of determining geocoronal Hα Doppler shifts on the order of 100 m/s with a temporal resolution on the order of minutes. These characteristics make the FW-SHS well suited for spectroscopic studies of relatively faint (~12–2 R), diffuse-source geocoronal Hα emission from Earth's upper thermosphere and exosphere and the interstellar medium in our Galaxy. Current and future FW-SHS observations extend long-term geocoronal hydrogen observation data sets already spanning three solar minima. This paper describes the FW-SHS first light performance and Hα observational results collected from observing nights across 2013 and 2014.

Geocoronal H α and H β intensity measurements using the Wisconsin H α Mapper Fabry-Perot are used to determine the intensity of the H α cascade component. From basic atomic physics and the work of Meier (1995), we show that the total cascade in geocoronal H α emission is 0.52 ± 0.03 times the geocoronal H β intensity, I(H β), for solar Lyman series excitation of geocoronal hydrogen. The results are consistent with the H α cascade measurements of Mierkiewicz et al. (2012), which were determined directly from the analysis of H α line profile measurements, and significantly narrow the range of uncertainty in the cascade measurement. Accounting for cascade is essential in determining exospheric effective temperatures and dynamics from the shape of the geocoronal H α line.

Cascade contributions to geocoronal Balmer α airglow line profiles are directly proportional to the Balmer β/α line ratio and can therefore be determined with near simultaneous Balmer β observations. Due to scattering differences for solar Lyman β and Lyman γ (responsible for the terrestrial Balmer α and Balmer β fluorescence, respectively) there is an expected trend for the cascade emission to become a smaller fraction of the Balmer α intensity at larger shadow altitudes. Near coincident Balmer α and Balmer β data sets, obtained from the Wisconsin Hα Mapper (WHAM) Fabry–Perot, are used to determine the cascade contribution to the Balmer α line profile, and to show, for the first time, the Balmer β/α line ratio, as a function of shadow altitude. We show that this result is in agreement with direct cascade determinations from Balmer α line profile fits obtained independently by high resolution Fabry–Perot at Pine Bluff, WI. We also demonstrate with radiative transport forward modeling that a solar cycle influence on cascade is expected, and that the Balmer β/α line ratio poses a tight constraint on retrieved aeronomical parameters (such as hydrogen's evaporative escape rate and exobase density). Index Terms: Hydrogen Geocorona, Balmer-alpha Line Profile, Fabry–Perot Interferometry

Ground-based Fabry–Perot observations of the solar excited Balmer α emission line of neutral atomic hydrogen have become one of the primary means of studying the distribution and behavior of hydrogen in the thermosphere+exosphere. This first of two companion papers on “Geocoronal Hydrogen Studies Using Fabry–Perot Interferometers”, will outline the technique of Fabry–Perot spectroscopy as applied to geocoronal hydrogen. Representative high spectral resolution data sets will be discussed which will serve to highlight advances in instrumentation and in the interpretation of geocoronal Balmer α intensity and line profile observations. A second companion paper will address long-term observations of the Balmer α emission.

Long-term data sets are required to investigate sources of natural variability in the upper atmosphere. Understanding the influence of sources of natural variability such as the solar cycle is needed to characterize the thermosphere + exosphere, to understand coupling processes between atmospheric regions, and to isolate signatures of natural variability from those due to human-caused change. Multi-year comparisons of thermospheric + exospheric Balmer α emissions require cross-calibrated and well-understood instrumentation, a stable calibration source, reproducible observing conditions, separation of the terrestrial from the Galactic emission line, and consistent data analysis accounting for differences in viewing geometry. We discuss how we address these criteria in the acquisition and analysis of a mid-latitude geocoronal Balmer α column emission data set now spanning two solar cycles and taken mainly from Wisconsin and Kitt Peak, Arizona. We also discuss results and outstanding challenges for increasing the accuracy and use of these observations.

The Wisconsin Hα Mapper (WHAM), a remotely operable, semi-automated Fabry-Perot located at Kitt Peak Observatory, has been making an all-sky survey of interstellar hydrogen Balmer α(Hα) emissions since 1997. Using the annular summing spectroscopy technique, WHAM has acquired ∼37,000 spectra to date, spanning almost 100 nights of observations. Since all of the galactic emission spectral data contain the terrestrial Hα (6562.7 A) emission line, these measurements constitute a rich source of geocoronal data for investigating natural variability in the upper atmosphere. The WHAM observations also serve as a benchmark for comparison with future data. Analysis of the first year of WHAM data shows only small day-to-day variations after shadow altitude variations are taken into account. For example, at shadow altitudes of 2000 and 3000 km, the RMS scatter is within approximately +/− 20%; this variability is expected to be reduced with accurate accounting of the smaller-scale effects of observational slant path, zenith angle, and azimuth on the Hα intensity. This result is consistent with past midlatitude Wisconsin data sets but different from observations made by other observers and instruments at the low-latitude Arecibo site. The multiple viewing geometries of the observations provide stringent modeling constraints, useful in testing current modeling capabilities. Modeling of the WHAM data with a global nonisothermal resonance radiation transport code (lyao_rt) indicates that the signal-to-noise of the data is sufficient to determine relative variations in upper atmospheric atomic hydrogen column densities to better than 5%. This paper describes the WHAM aeronomy program and its observational scheme, analysis procedures, and results from data taken in 1997. Case study comparisons are made with past data sets and with predictions from the lyao_rt resonant radiation transport modeling code of Bishop [1999].

Balmer α intensity measurements made with a dual etalon Fabry–Perot spectrometer at Haleakala during two campaigns in 1988 are presented. The data from each campaign demonstrate night-to-night stability, despite variations in geophysical conditions. Analysis of these data using a nonisothermal Lyman β radiative transport code, updated solar Lyman β line-center flux estimates, and corrected thermospheric atomic hydrogen density profiles points to the resolution of the “factor of 2” problem. A careful reassessment of other mechanisms for upper atmospheric Balmer α excitation has also been carried out.

This paper reports high-accuracy measurements of geocoronal Balmer α line profiles and demonstrates that the profiles are well fit with a model which includes cascade excitation by solar Lyman series radiation from n > 3 in addition to the direct excitation of n = 3 by solar Lyman β. The increase in the signal-to-noise of our data is made possible by the use of the Fabry-Perot annular summing technique implemented at our Fabry-Perot facility at the University of Wisconsin's Pine Bluff Observatory. The new sensitivity has allowed us to make a detailed examination of line profile asymmetries and to conclude that they are compatible with predictions that of the order of 10% of the geocoronal Balmer α emission is caused by the cascade process. Cascade excitation alters the observed profile because it produces Balmer α emission along fine structure paths yielding slightly shifted wavelengths not present in direct Lyman β excitation, which is the predominant excitation mechanism for geocoronal Balmer a. We discuss how fine structure excitation affects studies of non-Maxwellian exospheric hydrogen velocity distributions and effective temperatures through Balmer α line profile measurements. In a broader context, we consider how inclusion of the cascade excited emission in future radiation models can enhance their accuracy and their potential for assisting in the isolation in the data of shorter-term solar geophysical effects and longer timescale changes in exospheric hydrogen densities.

A Fabry-Perot annular summing spectroscopy technique has been used at the University of Wisconsin's Pine Bluff Observatory to acquire geocoronal Balmer-α line profile data with significantly improved precision and height resolution. The double-etalon Fabry-Perot interference pattern is imaged onto a Photometries PM512 charge-coupled device (CCD) chip, thus enabling light to be gathered in multiple spectral bins simultaneously. In comparison with scanning systems we used earlier, the high quantum efficiency of the CCD and the multichannel detection associated with the Fabry-Perot annular summing technique have enabled us to save a factor of about 10 in the integration time required for studies of the line profile. As a result, we are now able to both more precisely observe the line shape of the very faint (1–10 R) Balmer-α emission and obtain data using shorter integration times. Our data illustrate the scientific potential for using this technique for the study of very faint extended emission line sources. We present exospheric effective temperatures obtained from line profile data acquired during the period of 1992–1993. When these data are compared with predictions from the Anderson et al. [1987] and MSIS90 models, there are points of agreement as well as some discrepancies. Included in this paper are discussions of both technical issues associated with applying annular summing spectroscopy for geocoronal Balmer-α observations and results of data obtained using this technique.

[1] High spectral resolution line profile observations indicate a reproducible semi-annual variation in the geocoronal hydrogen Balmer α effective temperature. These observations were made between 08 January 2000 and 21 November 2001 from Pine Bluff Observatory (WI) with a second generation double etalon Fabry-Perot annular summing spectrometer operating at a resolving power of 80,000. This data set spans sixty-four nights of observations (1404 spectra in total) over 20 dark-moon periods. A two cluster Gaussian model fitting procedure is used to determine Doppler line widths, accounting for fine structure contributions to the line, including those due to cascade; cascade contributions at Balmer α are found to be 5 ± 3%. An observed decrease in effective temperature with increasing shadow altitude is found to be a persistent feature for every night in which a wide range of shadow altitudes were sampled. A semiannual variation is observed in the column exospheric effective temperature with maxima near day numbers 100 and 300 and minima near day numbers 1 and 200. Temperatures ranged from ∼710 to 975 K. Average MSIS model exobase temperatures for similar conditions are approximately 1.5× higher than those derived from the Balmer α observations, a difference likely due to contributions to the observed Balmer α column emission from higher, cooler regions of the exosphere.

[1] High precision observations during Solar Cycle 23 using the Wisconsin H-alpha Mapper (WHAM) Fabry-Perot quantify a factor of 1.5 ± 0.15 higher Balmer α column emission intensity during near-solar-maximum than during solar minimum conditions. An unresolved question is how does the observed solar cycle variation in the hydrogen column emission compare with that calculated from the hydrogen distribution in atmospheric models? We have compared WHAM solar minimum and near-solar-maximum column intensity observations with calculations using the thermospheric hydrogen density profile and background thermospheric conditions from the Mass Spectrometer Incoherent Scatter (NRLMSISE-00) empirical model extended to exospheric altitudes using the analytic exosphere model of Bishop (1991). Using this distribution, we apply the lyao_rt global resonance radiative transfer code of Bishop (1999) to calculate expected intensities that would be observed from the ground for the viewing conditions of the observations. The observed intensities are brighter than those calculated for the corresponding conditions, indicating that when MSIS is used as the thermospheric hydrogen distribution the derived intensities are too low. Additionally, both the observed and calculated WHAM hydrogen column emission intensities are higher for near-solar-maximum than for solar minimum conditions. There is better agreement between observations and intensities calculated using the evaporative analytic exosphere model at solar maximum, suggesting an underestimation of modeled satellite atoms at high altitudes. This result is consistent with sensitivity studies using the option for a quasi-exobase for satellite atoms to account for the creation of satellite orbits from charge exchange collisions.

Observations of the geocoronal Balmer α nightglow have been made from Wisconsin for more than a solar cycle with an internally consistent intensity reference to standard astronomical nebulae. These measurements were made with a double-etalon, pressure-scanned, 15-cm aperture Fabry-Perot interferometer. The resulting long time line data provides an opportunity to examine solar cycle influence on the mid-latitude exosphere and to address accompanying questions concerning the degree to which the exosphere is locally static or changing. Our exospheric Balmer α absolute intensity measurements show no statistically significant variations throughout the solar cycle when the variation with viewing geometry is removed by normalizing the data to reference exospheric model predictions by Anderson et al. However, the relative intensity dependence on solar depression angle does show a solar cycle variation. This variation suggests a possible related variation in the exospheric hydrogen density profile, although other interpretations are also possible. The results suggest that additional well-calibrated data taken over a longer time span could probe low-amplitude variations over the solar cycle and test predictions of a slow monotonic increase in exospheric hydrogen arising from greenhouse gases.

[1] The 11-year solar cycle is a dominant source of natural variability in the upper atmosphere, and its effect on atomic hydrogen distributions and emissions must be understood to investigate possible signs of longer-term climatic trends in this region. We present midlatitude geocoronal hydrogen Balmer a observations from solar cycle 23 (1997-2006) and three solar minimum periods, 1985, 1997, and 2006. The 1997 through 2006 observations were taken with the Wisconsin H-a Mapper Fabry-Perot (WHAM), a ground-based CCD-annular summing instrument that began observations at the Kitt Peak Observatory in Arizona in 1997. The 1985 observations were made with a similarly designed "pre-WHAM" Fabry-Perot Interferometer utilizing photomultiplier detection and located in Wisconsin. WHAM has consistently observed higher column emission intensities during solar maximum periods than during solar minimum conditions, with the ratio dependent upon the viewing geometry. The observations from three solar minimum periods agree to within 18% uncertainties over most of the shadow altitude range. An analysis of recent Fabry-Perot observations of upper atmospheric hydrogen during solar cycle 23 and during three solar minima (1985, 1997, 2006) established a reference data set of highly precise, consistently calibrated, thermospheric plus exospheric hydrogen column emission observations from northern midlatitudes that can be used to compare with future observations.

[1] Observations of thermospheric + exospheric Hα column emissions by the Wisconsin Hα Mapper (WHAM) Fabry-Perot (Kitt Peak, Arizona) over the 1997–2001 rise in solar cycle 23 show a statistically significant solar cyclical variation. The higher signal-to-noise WHAM observations corroborate suggestions of a solar cycle trend in the Hα emissions seen in Wisconsin observations over solar cycle 22. Here we compare WHAM 1997 and 2000–2001 winter solstice geocoronal Hα observations toward regions of the sky with low galactic emission. The observed variation in geocoronal hydrogen column emission intensities over the solar cycle is small compared with variations in hydrogen exobase densities. Higher Hα emissions are seen during solar maximum periods of the solar cycle. At a mid range shadow altitude (3000 km), WHAM geocoronal Hα intensities are about 45% higher during solar maximum than during solar minimum.

Large gains in the sensitivity of Fabry-Perots for geocoronal research have been achieved at the University of Wisconsin employing the technique of CCD annular summing spectroscopy. Earlier 'demonstration observations' of this technique lead to a significant new understanding of geocoronal hydrogen excitation. This paper will outline a new ground-based observing program which is building on these earlier observations in order to obtain definitive data regarding the physical processes which govern the abundance and transport of atomic hydrogen in the earth's atmosphere. Two double-etalon Fabry-Perot spectrometers have been installed at the University of Wisconsin's Pine Bluff Observatory (WI) for the purpose of making a systematic series of high spectral resolution (R approximately equals 100,000) line profile, and intensity observations of geocoronal hydrogen nightglow. For the first time it will be possible to obtain coincident observations of geocoronal hydrogen Balmer-alpha and Balmer- beta with sufficient signal-to-noise for detailed line profile studies. Because the geocoronal Balmer-beta emission is about one tenth the intensity of Balmer-alpha, the fitness of this line has frustrated past attempts to determine its profile; however, gains in sensitivity afforded by the annular-summing technique make these new observations possible. It is anticipated that these simultaneous observations will provide a means by which to isolate previously observed perturbations to the Balmer-alpha line, the components of which may arise from both contributions due to quantum mechanical fine structure and the non-Maxwellian dynamics of the hydrogen exosphere. Each of these instruments employs the annular summing technique in which the Fabry-Perot's annular fringe pattern is imaged onto a low noise CCD chip. Using the property that equal area annuli correspond to equal spectral intervals, software is used to divide the CCD image into equal area annular bins, whereby the Fabry-Perot interference pattern is converted into a useful spectral profile. This paper will describe the instrumentation, and how it relates to the planned observational program.