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The taxonomic classification of a falcon population found in the Mongolian Altai region in Asia has been heavily debated for two centuries and previous studies have been inconclusive, hindering a more informed conservation approach. Here, we generated a chromosome-level gyrfalcon reference genome using the Vertebrate Genomes Project (VGP) assembly pipeline. Using whole genome sequences of 49 falcons from different species and populations, including "Altai" falcons, we analyzed their population structure, admixture patterns, and demographic history. We find that the Altai falcons are genomic mosaics of saker and gyrfalcon ancestries, and carry distinct W and mitochondrial haplotypes that cluster with the lanner falcon. The Altai maternally-inherited haplotypes diverged 422,000 years before present (290,000–550,000 YBP) from the ancestor of sakers and gyrfalcons, both of which, in turn, split 109,000 YBP (70,000–150,000 YBP). The Altai W chromosome has 31 coding variants in 29 genes that may possibly influence important structural, behavioral, and reproductive traits. These findings provide insights into the question of Altai falcons as a candidate distinct species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two subspecies of Saker Falcon are commonly accepted - Western (Falco cherrug cherrug) and Eastern (Falco cherrug milvipes), which are differentiated by their distribution range and phenotype. In Bulgaria, Western Saker Falcons are breeding ex situ in the Wildlife Rehabilitation and Breeding Centre, part of Green Balkans - Stara Zagora NGO, with the aim of restoring the nesting population of the species in the country and both Western and Eastern - in the Breeding Centre for Birds of Prey in Burgas for the purpose of sale for the needs of falconry in the country and abroad. In 2021, a total of 115 birds from the two breeding centres were sampled. The samples were analysed in Bielefeld University (Germany) at nine microsatellite loci. Structure analyses were performed to establish the optimal explanatory number of groups. We compared the putative genetic groups with the known/expected origin of falcons. A separation in two groups best explained the allelic variation between samples. Out of 68 Saker Falcons with putatively Eastern origin, 66 were ascribed to genetic group 2 and two falcons had unclear, mixed or hybrid genetic fingerprints. Out of 42 Sakers with putatively Western origin, 33 were ascribed to genetic group 1, seven to genetic group 2 and two individuals appeared to have a mixed signature of genetic groups 1 and 2 with dominating alleles of group 2. Five known hybrids were scored as mixed signature with dominating genetic cluster 2. This suggests that the two (Eastern and Western) populations of Saker Falcon origin suggested by the subspecies' definitions are also adequate to be considered in breeding programmes. Genetic cluster 1 might represent the ancestral alleles shared with other falcons, while specific novel alleles allow the discrimination of secured Eastern Sakers (group 2), while these populations may be occasionally invaded by individuals from the west. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The globally endangered saker falcon (Falco cherrug) is currently being re-introduced in Bulgaria, where the falcons are bred in captivity and released through the hacking method. We relied on the birds’ pedigree when forming the breeding pairs from 2011. In 2021-2022, we had the opportunity to evaluate our captive population via DNA tests. We performed the first genetic assessment of the sakers in the WRBC through a genome evaluation of the most important founders (n = 12) and, in 2022, we executed a microsatellite analysis on 30 saker falcons from the programme. We compared the results with the known pedigree and history of the saker falcons. The genetic tests helped to assign relatedness to some birds with missing or incomplete pedigrees, indicating the test can complement that information and lead to better management of the captive group. One pair was separated as a precaution as it was indicated by one the tests that the two birds are more closely related than expected. The research could be beneficial to other raptor captive breeding programmes dealing with a similar group composition.

Avian anesthesia can be challenging due to birds' anatomical and physiological peculiarities. Also, most drug doses and combinations used are empirical. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anesthetic quality and physiological changes after dexmedetomidine-ketamine sedation and isoflurane anesthesia in the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). Twelve falcons weighing (mean±standard deviation) 915±175g were included in the study. Pre-sedation heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR) were assessed. A combination of ketamine (3mg/kg) and dexmedetomidine (25µg/kg) was administered intramuscularly. Sedation times were recorded, physiological variables assessed, and various blood parameters measured. Induction was performed with isoflurane at 2% for 2 minutes and anesthesia was maintained at 1%. During maintenance, physiological variables were assessed at 5-minute intervals and blood parameters were re-evaluated before reversal administration. Recovery times were documented. Quality of sedation, maintenance, and recovery were assessed. Sedation was achieved within 2.9±1.0 minutes and quality of sedation and maintenance were deemed «excellent» in all falcons. HR values decreased during sedation (137±38 versus 99±13 beats per minute; p =0.001) and remained constant during maintenance. No significant differences were seen in RR from pre-sedation values. Mean arterial blood pressure (203±14 versus 168±22mmHg; p <0.001) and cloacal temperature (40.3±0.8 versus 38.9±1.0°C; p <0.001) decreased after induction. Hypoxemia (65.9±6.1mmHg) was observed at sedation but resolved during maintenance, while hypercarbia (54.2±11.5mmHg) and acidemia (7.28±0.036) developed. Full recovery was quick (12.3±3.9minutes). The proposed drug combination provided for high quality sedation, maintenance, and a satisfactory recovery. Nevertheless, alterations in the falcons' physiology were documented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the research is to study the infection of diurnal birds of prey of the order Falconiformes with helminths and to determine the helminth species composition by the example of the Noyev Kovcheg Conservation Nature’s Nursery in the Altai Territory.Materials and methods. We studied diurnal birds of prey of the order Falconiformes for helminthosis in the Altai Territory, in the Noyev Kovcheg Conservation Nature’s Nursery, in 2022. For the parasitological study of birds, we used laboratory methods of helminthocoprological studies: helminthoovoscopy and helminthoscopy. Species identification was determined by characteristic morphological features of helminth eggs, larvae and fragments. To assess the infeсtion with certain types of helminths, we used standard indicators for parasitological research, namely, infection prevalence and infection intensity amplitude.Results and discussion. In 58 studied diurnal birds of prey of the order Falconiformes, 8 helminth species were identified of which 6 nematode species, namely, Ascaridia galli, Tetrameres sobolevi, Capillaria caudinflata, Heterakis gallinarum, Trichostrongylus spp., and Singamus trachea; 1 trematode species, Strigea spp.; and 1 cestode species, Raillietina echinobothrida. These species occurred throughout all seasons of 2022.

The concentrations of mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) in feather samples of nine bird's species (n = 65) were determined from southeastern areas of Iran, Hamun International Wetlands. Hg concentrations were ranged from 0.40 to 3.00 mg/kg dry wt and from 0.38 to 1.76 mg/kg for primary and secondary feathers, respectively. Furthermore, Pb concentrations were ranged from 1.43 to 4.10 mg/kg and from 1.28 to 3.65 mg/kg for primary and secondary feathers, respectively. Deposition of metals varied significantly among the primary and secondary feathers of systematic category (families) for Hg and Pb (p < 0.001). It was found that there is a significant difference in feather Hg and Pb concentrations across species (p < 0.001) with highest concentrations in saker falcon (Falconidae) (Hg = 3.00 mg/kg and Pb = 4.10 mg/kg, primary feather) followed by little owl (Strigidae). Grey francolin (Phasianidae) contained the least amount of Hg (0.40 mg/kg) and Pb (1.43 mg/kg) in primary feather. The results showed that the highest concentrations of heavy metals were related to carnivores. Fish predators, omnivores, and insectivores were examined at the next level of metal concentration, with herbivores having the lowest concentrations of lead (1.43 mg/kg) and mercury (0.40 mg/kg). Birds with an open grasslands feeding strategy had the highest mercury and lead concentration. The average value for Pb was on the border of harmful effects (4 mg/kg). The results of this study indicate that mercury levels are lower than the threshold level for reproductive and behavioral harm (5 mg/kg). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The globally endangered saker falcon (Falco cherrug) is currently being re-introduced in Bulgaria, where the falcons are bred in captivity and released through the hacking method. We relied on the birds’ pedigree when forming the breeding pairs from 2011. In 2021-2022, we had the opportunity to evaluate our captive population via DNA tests. We performed the first genetic assessment of the sakers in the WRBC through a genome evaluation of the most important founders (n = 12) and, in 2022, we executed a microsatellite analysis on 30 saker falcons from the programme. We compared the results with the known pedigree and history of the saker falcons. The genetic tests helped to assign relatedness to some birds with missing or incomplete pedigrees, indicating the test can complement that information and lead to better management of the captive group. One pair was separated as a precaution as it was indicated by one the tests that the two birds are more closely related than expected. The research could be beneficial to other raptor captive breeding programmes dealing with a similar group composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With saker falcon populations on the mend globally, and in Bulgaria, special caution is taken to ensure the best possible care of the birds in their breeding programmes. Diets play a particularly important role as they affect the health of not only the breeding pairs, but also the young birds. With the ultimate goal for the captive-bred sakers being to reestablish viable saker falcon populations, releasing healthy falcons is paramount. As part of the ongoing saker falcon reintroduction efforts in Bulgaria, special emphasis was placed on well-rounded diets carefully tailored to the species, and the accompanying proper sanitation procedures. Outlined are best practices concerning the variety of dietary regimes for saker falcons in captivity and for released falcons based on their biology and behaviour. In captivity the meals were different for non-breeding birds, breeding birds, for nesting birds, and for birds with chicks in the nest. The hacked juvenile saker falcons had a change in diet every two weeks - starting with food similar to the one in the breeding facilities, to the more natural for the species meals. The different techniques aimed at replicating wild conditions resulted in a natural breeding behaviour for the saker falcons kept in captivity, and successful adaptation for the released juveniles. The meal preparation methods kept the risk of food-transmitted diseases to a minimum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Diet analysis is essential to understanding the functional role of large bird species in food webs. Morphological analysis of regurgitated bird pellet contents is time intensive and may underestimate biodiversity. DNA metabarcoding has the ability to circumvent these issues, but has yet to be done. Methods We present a pilot study using DNA metabarcoding of MT-RNR1 and MT-CO1 markers to determine the species of origin and prey of 45 pellets collected in Qinghai and Gansu Provinces, China. Results We detected four raptor species [Eurasian Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo), Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), and Upland Buzzard (Buteo hemilasius)] and 11 unique prey species across 10 families and 4 classes. Mammals were the greatest detected prey class with Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) being the most frequent. Observed Shannon’s and Simpson’s diversity for Upland Buzzard were 1.089 and 0.479, respectively, while expected values were 1.312 ± 0.266 and 0.485 ± 0.086. For Eurasian Eagle Owl, observed values were 1.202 and 0.565, while expected values were 1.502 ± 0.340 and 0.580 ± 0.114. Interspecific dietary niche partitioning between the two species was not detected. Conclusions Our results demonstrate successful use of DNA metabarcoding for understanding diet via a novel noninvasive sample type to identify common and uncommon species. More work is needed to understand how raptor diets vary locally, and the mechanisms that enable exploitation of similar dietary resources. This approach has wide ranging applicability to other birds of prey, and demonstrates the power of using DNA metabarcoding to study species noninvasively.

Considered extinct as breeding species in the early 2000s, the Saker Falcon was recovered when the first active nest from the new history of the species in Bulgaria was discovered in 2018, formed of two birds that were re-introduced back in 2015. Currently, there is only one confirmed wild breeding pair in the country - the male from 2015 with a female changed in 2020, released again as a part of the programme, in 2016. This is a report on the preliminary results and analysis of the ongoing establishment phase of the re-introduction of the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) in Bulgaria - first ever performed for this species in the country and globally. The period studied is 2015-2020. Following the re-introduction activities started in 2011, the current phase is defined by standardised methodology and a unified approach. Analysed and presented are methods for captive breeding and hacking, the breeding performance of the falcons, the number of released individuals, data from the post-fledging dependence period and a model of population growth.

For three species of captive breeding falcons—gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), saker falcon (F. cherrug), and peregrine falcon (F. peregrinus)—a universal system of genetic identification based on multilocus microsatellite genotypes has been tested. The estimates of relatedness in the species groups of birds from breeding centers are analyzed. A set of 13 nuclear microsatellite loci makes it possible to reliably identify individuals and clarify whether individuals belong to related groups, and in some cases, it makes it possible to recognize interspecific hybrids. The results of this study can be used in breeding and introduced into the practice of forensic molecular genetic examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the ecological importance and social popularity of falcons, many elements of their biology remain unknown, including the variety of parasites that infect them in the wild and in captivity. Some of these are from the common alveolate genus Haemoproteus, which parasitise birds worldwide. We investigated the genetic diversity of Haemoproteus tinnunculi infecting the captive saker falcons (Falco cherrug) to describe their phylogenetic relationships. The overall prevalence of H. tinnunculi collected between December 2018 and February 2020 was 4.53% (58/1280). A fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of H. tinnunculi was amplified from fifty-eight blood samples. Our findings indicate that two lineages of H. tinnunculi infect falcons in Saudi Arabia, one of which is reported here for the first time. These findings will inform the future investigation of phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversity of Haemoproteus parasites in falcons.

Mongolia is the main habitat of the Saker Falcon. The Saker Falcon is one of 10 falcons commonly distributed in our country from Altai to the western part of the Great Khyangan Mountain. In addition to their important role-playing in the environment of the area where they habit, the birds are still a species in the national interest as an attitude of the national bird, and global attention due to international trade issues. The birds of prey play an important role in maintaining the ecosystem balance therefore the conservation should be based on science. As a result of the 2018 field survey covering an area of 64,000 sq. km through the territory of 19 provinces of Mongolia, we have determined the habitat range of the Saker Falcon is 680,000 sq. km, and the core habitat is 180,000 sq. km. The Brandt's Vole (Lasiopodomys brandtii) a small rodent and the Mongolian Lark (Melanocorypha mongolica) a small bird are one of the main prey species and are major indicators of its existence. Due to more realistic distribution accuracy, the Saker Falcon habitats were modeled in detail using environmental layers and its main prey and hotspot analysis. Estimating population and species distribution area not only represents the sustainable balance of the ecosystem but is also considered a key factor of local and regional socio-economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Saker falcon (Falco cherrug) is a globally endangered species recovered in 2018 in Bulgaria. The only known active pair currently breeding in the wild in the country is made up of captive-bred and released birds, part of the first reintroduction programme for the species in Bulgaria and globally. As part of the project, sourced Saker falcons of known European origin are bred ex situ, the juveniles are parent-reared and released in the wild by means of the hacking method. The aim of this study was to evaluate the success and effectiveness of the captive breeding and rearing methods. The objective of the study was to investigate, compare and assess the results from fertilization, hatching, survival and hacking of captive bred Saker falcons registered over a 10-year period (2011-2021) at the Wildlife Rehabilitation and Breeding Centre (WRBC) Green Balkans, with a more detailed comparison of the breeding activities carried out in 2020 and 2021 (as the reintroduction programme was restarted in 2020). The results show more than threefold increase in output of laid eggs with the employment of the double clutching method in 2020 and 2021, and an overall 65% release rate of the hatched in the WRBC Saker falcons, for the investigated period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Diet analysis is essential to understanding the functional role of large bird species in food webs. Morphological analysis of regurgitated bird pellet contents is time intensive and may underestimate biodiversity. DNA metabarcoding has the ability to circumvent these issues, but has yet to be done. Methods: We present a pilot study using DNA metabarcoding of MT-RNR1 and MT-CO1 markers to determine the species of origin and prey of 45 pellets collected in Qinghai and Gansu Provinces, China. Results: We detected four raptor species [Eurasian Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo), Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), and Upland Buzzard (Buteo hemilasius)] and 11 unique prey species across 10 families and 4 classes. Mammals were the greatest detected prey class with Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) being the most frequent. Observed Shannon's and Simpson's diversity for Upland Buzzard were 1.089 and 0.479, respectively, while expected values were 1.312 ± 0.266 and 0.485 ± 0.086. For Eurasian Eagle Owl, observed values were 1.202 and 0.565, while expected values were 1.502 ± 0.340 and 0.580 ± 0.114. Interspecific dietary niche partitioning between the two species was not detected. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate successful use of DNA metabarcoding for understanding diet via a novel noninvasive sample type to identify common and uncommon species. More work is needed to understand how raptor diets vary locally, and the mechanisms that enable exploitation of similar dietary resources. This approach has wide ranging applicability to other birds of prey, and demonstrates the power of using DNA metabarcoding to study species noninvasively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined variation in the number and demographic composition of electrocuted Saker Falcons (Falco cherrug) in Mongolia. We found 1721 electrocuted Saker Falcons during our surveys of multiple power lines in 2013–2015 and 2018. At a single power line surveyed over a 16-mo period in 2013–2014, the lowest electrocution rates occurred from December to March, with a rise in April coinciding with the return of migrant juveniles from their wintering areas. Electrocution rates rose sharply during juvenile post-fledging dispersal, and then declined in October as migrants departed. Monthly changes in electrocution rate and age profile reflected predicted variation in abundance and age structure of the local Saker Falcon population. We found that 88% of electrocuted Saker Falcons were juveniles, mostly killed during their first calendar year. The sex ratio of electrocuted juveniles fledged in the 2013 cohort (hatch-year birds) was significantly female-biased, in contrast to the equal sex ratio of the 2012 juvenile cohort (second calendar-year birds) killed in the same year (2013). Sex ratio of the 2013 juvenile cohort did not differ significantly from parity at other power lines across Mongolia, indicating that sex ratio of electrocuted juveniles can vary in time and space. The sex of electrocuted adults, predominantly males, and an age profile of breeding Saker Falcons that includes younger females suggests a possible male-biased sex ratio among adult Saker Falcons in Mongolia. Given that large numbers of endangered Saker Falcons are electrocuted annually in Mongolia, our study suggests electrocution may be an important driver of demographic trends that can potentially result in population declines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we made a revaluation of a number of the Saker (Falco cherrug) on the Crimean Peninsula based on data obtained in an expedition conducted in May 9–26 of 2015. During this expedition Sakers were observed on 58 sites (31 times they were seen on pylons of power lines, 14 – on cliffs in the foothills of Crimean Mountains, 8 – on the coastal cliffs and 4 on the coastal precipices, and one adult male was seen in the forest shelter belt near Syvash lagoon. We revealed 49 breeding territories of Saker including 42 occupied nests with successful breeding. The estimation of the total number of breeding population on peninsula is 145–184 (mean 165) breeding pairs, including 125–159 (mean 142) pairs which breeding attempts were successful in 2015. The distance between the neighboring pairs is 1.95–15.21 km (mean 6.56±3.37 km), n=43. Pylons of power lines were used by 30 breeding pairs (61.22%) out of 49, and 29 successful nests (69.05%) out of 42 were built on pylons. Supposedly, 63.83% of all breeding pairs in Crimea are bred on pylons, and the percentage of successful nests out of the total number of nests in population is 71.89%. From the 34 nests that were built on pylons, 24 (70.59%) were located on the concrete pylons and 10 (29.41%) on the metal ones. On cliffs and precipices we found 24 nests in total. Eighteen (75%) of them were built on a bare ground, while the others were found in the nests built by other bird species (most of them were made in the former nests of the Raven (Corvus corax), and one pair occupies a nest of the Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus) located on cliff. The percentage of successful nests out of occupied ones was 85.71%. We found broods of 1–4 nestlings, which in average (n=23) makes 2.83±0.78 nestling per successful nest. The majority of broods (65.22%) consisted of 3 nestlings. On 20 breeding territories (90.91%) male birds were older then 2 years old, and two breeding territories (9.09%) were occupied by males of 1st or 2nd calendar-year; females on 16 breeding territories (47.06%) were older then 2 years old, on 13 territories (38,24%) were of one year old and on 5 (14,71%) territories of two years old. We suppose a population decline in a range from 4.1% to 17.7% in the coming 5 years.

This article was prepared according on the analysis of the situation with the poaching and smuggling of falcons (Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus, Saker Falcon F. cherrug and Peregrine Falcon F. peregrinus) in CIS countries in 2006–2015. It is carried out within the program “Struggle against poaching and smuggling” of the Russian Raptor Research and Conservation Network. The total number of cases of “falcon detentions” in the CIS has 1.6 times increased for 10 years. The number of seized birds has 1.4 times increase from 538 in 1996–2005 to 737 in 2006–2015, including the number of Gyrfalcons has increased by 2.6 times (from 142 to 365), Saker Falcon – 1.1 times (from 260 to 284), Peregrine Falcon – 3.4 times (from 13 to 44). The rate of Gyrfalcon among seized birds has increased by 1.5 times, Peregrine Falcon – 2 times, and the rate of Saker Falcon has decreased by 1.5 times. The number of annual cases of “falcon detentions” has increased from 2–6 in 2006–2008 to 14–16 cases in 2014–2015, on an annual basis their dynamics is correlated with the changes in the legislation. The most effective detentions are in the Far East (Kamchatka and Chukotka), the second region of catching, where there are significantly more cases of detentions, is Altai-Sayan. The maximum number of detentions were made with the participation of MIA members (51); nearly half of the detentions were produced with FSS (23); 20 cases involved customs authorities; 11 cases – border guards. Regional bodies of Environmental Protection participated in arrest only 12 times, Rosprirodnadzor took part in three detentions. In 75 cases of 100 there were detained 155 people, including 51 locals, 13 residents from other regions of the same country, 13 foreign-born citizens and 65 foreigners. The maximum number of foreigners was detained in Siberia – 43 from 6 countries, they account for 75.4% of the total number of detainees, with 75% of foreigners – citizens of Syria. The export of falcons from Russia goes through the international airports of the European part of Russia and through Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Barbarous looting pillage of resources of large falcons in CIS countries, first of all, Gyrfalcon and Saker Falcon, ordered and paid by Arabian falconers. Today the existing need in falcons is ten times higher than the potential of nesting populations.

Plans of JSC “KazMunayGaz” National Company” on developing the Kansu gas field, which is situated right next to current southern borders of Usturt natural reserve on Kenderli-Kayasan conservation zone (Mangystau Province of the Republic of Kazakhstan) are a direct danger for the largest population of the Saker Falcon Falco cherrug korelovi in Kazakhstan and for Kenderli-Kayasan conservation zone’s ecosystem as a whole. On the contrary, the realization of plans to expand the Usturt State Reserve within the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan/GEF/UNDP project “Rising of stability of systems in conservation territories in desert ecosystems through promoting life sustaining sources compatible with biodiversity in and around conservation areas” and international expert group’s initiative of Mangystau Protected Area System to be nominated for UNESCO World Heritage status could create favorable environment for Usturt population of the Saker Falcon. It’s evident that all possible outcomes should be taken into account in the long-term planning of future development of Mangystau region, and options of development with less negative effect on environment should be chosen. In their letter to President of Kazakhstan the experts described their opinion on the necessity of imposing a moratorium on exploration and development of the Kansu gas field and concentrating on alternative fields.

This report summarizes information on factors impacting on the decrease in numbers of the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) in Russia and Kazakhstan and analyses conditions в of the Global Action Plan that are aimed at neutralization of these factors to increase in numbers and sustainable management of the Saker Falcon in the wild.

Based on author’s research in 2014 the paper contains information on distribution, numbers and breeding biology of the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) in the Altai-Sayan region. A total of 112 breeding territories of the Saker Falcon (28.9% of the territories already known in the Altai-Sayan region) located in the Krasnoyarsk Kray, Khakassia, Tyva and Altai Republics were visited in 2014: 94 territories were occupied and 44 territories were successful. Six new territories were discovered in 2014, 7 – recovered within borders of an old empty territory and 11 – were noted as abandoned in 2014. A total of 25 breeding territories of the Saker Falcon located in the Altai Kray were visited in 2014: 4 territories were occupied and 3 territories were successful. Considering the expert estimation a total of 1237–1473 pairs (averaging 1355 pairs) breed in the Altai-Sayan region in 2014, and 618–736 pairs (averaging 677 pairs) are successful. The population trend was noted as negative and was -26% per past 12 years of the census conducted. The positive population trend for the Saker Falcon has been recorded for the last 3 years due to the growth of its population in Tuva – 2% for the region. Estimation a total of 34–45 pairs (averaging 39 pairs) breed in the Altai Kray in 2014, and 17–22 pairs (averaging 19 pairs) are successful. The population trend was noted as negative and was -67% per past 12 years of the census conducted (Saker Falcon population in the pine forests has virtually been extinct).

Abstract: Accurate individual identification is required to estimate survival rates in avian populations. For endangered species, non‐invasive methods of obtaining individual identification, such as using molted feathers as a source of DNA for microsatellite markers, are preferred because of less disturbance, easy sample preparation and high efficiency. With the availability of many avian genomes, a few pipelines isolating genome‐wide microsatellites have been published, but it is still a challenge to isolate microsatellites from the reference genome efficiently. Here, we have developed an integrated tool comprising a bioinformatic pipeline and experimental procedures for microsatellite isolation and validation based on the reference genome. We have identified over 95 000 microsatellite loci and established a system comprising 10 highly polymorphic markers (PIC value: 0.49–0.93, mean: 0.79) for an endangered species, saker falcon (Falco cherrug). These markers (except 1) were successfully amplified in 126 molted feathers, exhibiting high amplification success rates (83.9–99.7%), high quality index (0.90–0.97) and low allelic dropout rates (1–9.5%). To further assess the efficiency of this marker system in a population study, we identified individual sakers using these molted feathers (adult) and 146 plucked feathers (offspring). The use of parent and offspring samples enabled us to infer the genotype of missing samples (N = 28), and all adult genotypes were used to ascertain that breeding turnover is a useful proxy for survival estimation in sakers. Our study presents a cost‐effective tool for microsatellite isolation based on publicly available reference genomes and demonstrates the power of this tool in estimating key parameters of avian population dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant interspecific differences in avian vision occur, even in congeneric species, and these have been correlated with differences in the perceptual challenges associated with foraging. Although diurnal raptors are assumed to be mainly visually guided in their foraging, they differ markedly in their foraging tactics and this may result in different visual demands. Among the Falconidae (Falconiformes), most falcons forage mainly on the wing for highly mobile prey, whereas caracaras forage on the ground for carrion and insects. We assessed whether Saker Falcon Falco cherrug and Southern Caracara Caracara plancus differ in their visual abilities by determining the visual fields and foveal characteristics of both species. Using an ophthalmoscopic reflex technique, we found a higher degree of binocular overlap in the caracaras than in the falcons. The high binocular overlap (47°) of the Southern Caracara may facilitate object manipulation (e.g. moving rocks) when foraging. We used an ultra-high resolution spectral-domain optical coherence tomography to determine foveal characteristics. We found two foveas (depressions in the retina where high visual resolution is expected) in the falcons (one central and one temporal) but only a central fovea in the caracaras. The presence of a shallower temporal fovea in Saker Falcons may help to fixate visually upon a highly mobile prey item during pursuit. We conclude that these differences in visual field configurations and foveal characteristics reflect different foraging demands, suggesting that the extraction of visual information is finely tuned to the demands of their foraging tactics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low oxygen and temperature pose key physiological challenges for endotherms living on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau ( QTP). Molecular adaptations to high-altitude living have been detected in the genomes of Tibetans, their domesticated animals and a few wild species, but the contribution of transcriptional variation to altitudinal adaptation remains to be determined. Here we studied a top QTP predator, the saker falcon, and analysed how the transcriptome has become modified to cope with the stresses of hypoxia and hypothermia. Using a hierarchical design to study saker populations inhabiting grassland, steppe/desert and highland across Eurasia, we found that the QTP population is already distinct despite having colonized the Plateau <2000 years ago. Selection signals are limited at the cDNA level, but of only seventeen genes identified, three function in hypoxia and four in immune response. Our results show a significant role for RNA transcription: 50% of upregulated transcription factors were related to hypoxia responses, differentiated modules were significantly enriched for oxygen transport, and importantly, divergent EPAS1 functional variants with a refined co-expression network were identified. Conservative gene expression and relaxed immune gene variation may further reflect adaptation to hypothermia. Our results exemplify synergistic responses between DNA polymorphism and RNA expression diversity in coping with common stresses, underpinning the successful rapid colonization of a top predator onto the QTP. Importantly, molecular mechanisms underpinning highland adaptation involve relatively few genes, but are nonetheless more complex than previously thought and involve fine-tuned transcriptional responses and genomic adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian electrocution at power lines is a well-documented phenomenon, yet factors influencing the frequency of electrocution events and the efficacy of mitigation techniques remain relatively under-reported. During May-July, we surveyed a 56 km long 15 kV electricity distribution line running across open steppe in Mongolia recording electrocuted birds of prey under the power poles. We recorded high rates of electrocution of several Threatened raptor species, particularly the Endangered Saker Falcon Falco cherrug, which was killed at a monthly rate of 1.6 birds per 10 km during the period of our study. Electrocution frequency at line poles was associated with density of small mammal holes and the deployment of mitigation measures. It is likely that local prey abundance influences the frequency of birds of prey perching on power poles, which is consequently reflected in electrocution rate. We evaluated the efficacy of mitigation measures and found that the use of perch deflector spikes on the crossarms of line poles reduced electrocution rates when 3 or 4 spikes were deployed. Perch deflectors probably worked by reducing the opportunity for birds to perch adjacent to pin insulators rather than by reducing the frequency of birds perching on the crossarm per se. At anchor poles, reconfiguration of jump wires at two phases, so they passed under the crossarm rather than over, significantly reduced electrocution rates. These mitigation measures potentially represent a relatively inexpensive method to reduce the frequency of raptor electrocution events in regions where cost is a key factor for power line managers in determining whether or not any form of mitigation is used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 3-year-old male saker falcon ( Falco cherrug ) was presented with a history of hyperflexion of the first digit of the left pelvic limb with what appeared to be a hypercontracted distal end of the deep digital flexor tendon ( m. flexor hallucis longus ). Conservative treatment, bandaging, and splinting techniques failed to resolve the hypercontraction of the deep digital flexor tendon and improve digit function. Intraoperatively, the deep digital flexor tendon was found to have formed adhesions with the tendon sheath as well as the bone and soft tissue structures underneath it, impeding its ability to move freely within the tendon sheath. The adhesions were surgically resolved, and the tendon was lengthened by hemisectioning the deep digital flexor tendon at its distal end. Postsurgically, the digit was maintained in an extended position by bandaging. Mild physiotherapy was provided at 5-day intervals to retain function and prevent adhesions. Digit extensibility and function were restored to nearly normal levels after 4 weeks.

This study is important because Mongolia is the main reserve country for breeding saker falcons in the world, where they play a key role in the steppe ecosystem as a predator of a rodent pest species. This is the first study to address factors influencing egg, chick and adult saker mortality in Central Mongolia. A total of 338 eggs, fresh remains and carcasses from 194 active nests in the study areas were collected and examined. Egg, chick and adult mortality in the study areas did not differ significantly between 1998 and 2004. Deserted clutches (35.1%) and infertile eggs (30.4%) were found to be the two main factors causing reduced hatching success. Factors causing chick mortality were not significantly different each year . In 1998 - 2004, natural causes accounted for 61.1% of total mortality of Central Mongolian sakers. Human or anthropogenic factors explained 26.4% of all saker deaths. The main predator of chicks was the Eagle Owl ( Bubo bubo ). Chick mortality caused by cleaning raptor nests from poles and HPEL pylons was 21.3%. No significant dif ferences were found between factors influencing adult saker mortality . The highest percentage of total adult saker mortality was caused by electrocution (54%). Poisoning also reduced saker numbers. The number of exported sakers has dramatically increased over the last four years. saker numbers in Mongolia are relatively high and so trappers are increasingly concentrating on this reserve. A harsh winter in 2002 caused decreased Brandt’ s vole ( Microtus brandti ) numbers in two study areas. The number of saker breeding pairs decreased in these study areas in 2003. The results will provide an important data source for planning saker falcon conservation strategies and activities in Mongolia.

The aim of the present study was to monitor, assess and evaluate breeding success of one of the most important representatives of the birds of prey, which is the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug, J.E.Gray, 1834), in an orogfraphic unit Trnavská pahorkatina hills, which is located in western Slovakia. The bird is important for nature and for humans, the system IUCN categorized it as „endangered species". Saker Falcon therefore includes the right to the natural wealth of Slovakia, and deserves not only admiration, but also protection both in Slovakia, as well as globally. In this work, we evaluated the differences in the composition of the nourishment in different years, the most common causes and of factors that threaten its population, the most preferred type of an occupied nest and the development of population abundance from 2001 to 2013. Based on the observed results, we pointed out that in the past the Saker Falcon nested mainly in the mountains and alluvial forests of Slovakia, but due to human interference in its habitat, especially in the mountains of Malé Karpaty Mountains, this predator population gradually moved to the agricultural landscape. The main cause of resettlement of the population of Saker Falcon from mountains to agicultural landscape was a human impact, especially for forest activities. A huge influence on population size reduction of Saker Falcon has illegal nest robbery, disturbance of nesting pairs by forestal and agricultural activities. The major factor which contributes to diminishing its population is annually changing weather conditions and lack of food. In the past, the main prey were the European Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus citellus, L). Affected by the disposal of many pastures and intensive agriculture, its occurrence habitats nearly disappeared. In recent years, as a result of adaptation to new environment conditions, Saker Falcon dietary prefers especially pigeons. Increased incidence of Saker Falcon can therefore be seen near granaries and peri-urban areas. However, for nesting they mainly use manmade nests that one creates in the agricultural land on utility poles. Although mankind almost caused its extinction, the rescue of the entire population of Saker Falcon depend on humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The numbers of Falco cherrug and Falco peregrinus trapped during their migration over the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) were investigated from published reports and through interviews with well-known trappers and dealers over several years (1989–2013). The number of trapped individuals increased for both species over a 23 year period, which is probably related to an enhanced trapping effort. Time series analysis suggests that the number of Saker Falcons being trapped is likely to be stable with annual fluctuations in the coming ten-year period, whereas the number of trapped Peregrine Falcons will probably decline with a small fluctuation initially. Using the population viability analysis suggests a high extinction rate for the Saker Falcon population migrating through KSA during the coming 10 and 20 years; whereas Peregrine Falcons probably take more than 100 years to reach the extinction threshold. However, the increase in the trapping period, especially in the spring, that has been observed during the last five years could increase the number of falcons trapped in the future. As both falcon species are migratory, implementing conservation actions across all range states is important to ensure a favourable conservation status for the Saker and Peregrine Falcons. Both species will benefit through the implementation of the Global Action Plan (GAP), developed by the Saker Falcon Task Force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cytoarchitecture of the endocrine pancreas of 10 raptors (golden eagles, peregrine falcons, Saker falcon, turkey vultures, red-tailed hawk and unspecified falcon) was examined by immunohistochemistry. Three islet types were identified: type A mixed islets composed mainly by glucagon (A)-secreting cells, type B mixed islets with predominantly insulin (B)-secreting cell component and type M mixed islets (type M) consisting of variable number of glucagon-, insulin- and somatostatin (D)-secreting cells. The latter were further characterized into Type I, II or III according to the cell distribution of the three cell types. A and D cells were also randomly scattered within the exocrine pancreas. The results of this study suggest that the classical concept in birds of a segregation of A and B cells in well-defined and distinct islets is not applicable in raptors, reflecting an evolutionary adaptation to different dietary habits and variation in developmental mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From October 201 0 until December 201 4 the LIFE09 NAT/HU/000384 project was implemented in four Special Protected Areas in Slovakia. The recent project was complementary to a previous LIFE project implemented between 2006 and 201 0. Both projects supported regular monitoring of the population of saker falcon and new approaches to conservation of the species. The LIFE09 project helped to increase knowledge about the prey composition and the behaviour of the species. The population was strongly affected in 201 3 by extremely bad weather conditions (1 .79 fledglings/breeding attempt). Although the total number of saker falcon pairs in Slovakia is thought to be higher, 31 pairs were breeding in 201 4. By analysis of the diet (2991 individuals), 47 prey species were identified, from which birds were predominant (80%). More than half of the diet consisted of feral pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica) (59%) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bird conservation on electricity transmission lines has a 40-year history in Hungary. It started with the saker conservation program. The initial small-scale activities were considerably enlarged through the LIFE projects. In the first project, 301 nest boxes for sakers of a new type made of aluminium were installed on pylons of high-voltage transmission lines. In 201 3 nearly 70% of saker pairs nested in these new boxes. An estimated 1 00 000 different birds used to be killed annually on the transmission line pylons in Hungary. During the two LIFE projects about 1 4 300 pylons were made bird-safe using improved technology and materials. Nearly 800 new bird-safe crossarms of pylons are being installed in the second project, which is expected to completely eradicate the danger [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the period 2008-2011 nine juvenile saker falcon females from SW Slovakia were tracked with satellite telemetry. The movement of four of those females tagged with satellite tracking devices was analysed in 2011 (two juveniles for 6 months, one for 5 months and one for 3 months). The analysis of the collision risk with wind turbines also used telemetry data from previous years (2008-2009) - five birds tracked from abandoning their nest to abandoning their post-fledging areas (i.e. 45, 48, 37, 11 3 and 1 34 days). The juveniles visited 1 3 different countries during their post-fledging dispersal and migration. Maximum distance from the nest varied between 1 53 and 2094 km. For two birds the cause of death was recorded: one female was electrocuted and other female was probably also electrocuted. We also evaluated two factors of potential wind turbine threat: a) the distance ofGPS locations from the nearest wind turbines in the vicinity of post-fledging areas, b) numbers ofwind turbines in post-fledging areas. Assessment of the collision risk with wind turbines showed low risk for the tracked individuals. Two of four tracked birds were at medium risk (2-5 km) from wind turbines. The highest risk for the young falcons comes from wind turbines in neighbouring countries, where they are constructed near borders [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial nests are a commonly used management technique to increase the breeding population and/or productivity of birds with nest site limited populations. We compared nest survival of saker falcons breeding in artificial nests erected in a flat steppe landscape with those breeding in natural nests on rocks and cliffs in adjacent hills of central Mongolia. We found no significant difference in daily nest survival during the egg and nestling stages of the breeding cycle. Nest survival varied across years and was higher at artificial than natural nest sites, primarily because of higher survival rates during the egg stage at artificial nests. However, fledgling productivity was not significantly different although artificial nests produced an average of 3.2 fledglings compared to 2.3 at natural nest sites. We found no significant differences in offspring sex ratios and fledgling mass at artificial and natural nest sites. Provision of artificial nests can increase the range, size and productivity of saker falcon breeding populations, a globally endangered species subject to high mortality and trapping for falconry. This management technique can be used for incentive-driven conservation initiatives, whereby sustainable harvest quotas can be generated from demographic models based on parameters derived from a managed and monitored population breeding in artificial nests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a case study on the phylogeny and conservation of Saker falcon, a falconid raptor species with Palearctic distribution, in Hungary. Topics include the distribution and population size of the Saker falcon, its taxonomy, and hybridization among falcon species. It also discusses the factors threatening the population of the Saker, particularly the occurrence of the hybrid falcons. It also discusses how the results of molecular research can benefit conservation biology.

We present results from a study on the diet of Saker falcon (n = 15 nests) and Eastern imperial eagle (n = 2 nests) from south Kazakhstan, on the basis of food remains and pellets collected during the 2009 breeding season. The main prey for Saker falcon was predominantly rodents living in middle-size colonies -- Spermophilus erytrogenys and Rhombomys opimus. We also present the results from the diet of two pairs of Eastern imperial eagles nesting close to Balkhash Lake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]