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Introduction: Neovascular age-related macular degeneration is a global public-health concern, associated with a considerable burden to individuals, healthcare systems, and society. The objective of this study was to understand different perspectives on the challenges associated with the clinical management of neovascular age-related macular degeneration, which could elucidate measures to comprehensively improve clinical care and outcomes., Methods: A survey was carried out of patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration, their providers, and clinic staff in 77 clinics across 24 countries on six continents, from a diverse range of healthcare systems, settings, and reimbursement models. Surveys comprised a series of single/multiple-response questions completed anonymously. Data gathered included patient personal characteristics, appointment attendance challenges, treatment experiences, and opportunities to improve support. Provider and clinic staff surveys asked similar questions about their perspectives; clinic characteristics were also captured., Results: There were 6425 responses; 4558 patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration, 659 providers, and 1208 clinic staff. Challenges identified included concern about patient burden to family/friends, high frequency of treatment, difficulties in traveling to appointments, long waiting times, and insufficient comprehension of neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Participants identified logistical (improved financial assistance with treatment and out-of-pocket costs, and appointment reminders), operational (addressing clinic set up to reduce waiting times and improving the amount of time providers spend with patients), and educational (improving quality and provision of patient information and expectation-setting) opportunities to improve care., Conclusions: The wealth of data generated by this global survey highlights the breadth of challenges associated with clinical management of patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Addressing the opportunities raised could improve patient adherence to treatment and potentially outcomes, reduce appointment burden, and increase clinic capacity., Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflict of Interest: Anat Loewenstein: Consultant: 4DMT, AbbVie, Alkeus, Annexon, Apellis, Astellas, Bayer Health Care, Beyeonics, Eyepoint, Johnson & Johnson, NotalVision, Novartis, Ocular Therapeutics, Oculis, Ocuphire Pharma, Ocuterra, Opthea, Oxurion, Roche, Syneos; Michelle Sylvanowicz: Employee: Bayer; Winfried M. Amoaku: Advisory board membership: AbbVie, Alcon, Alimera, Allergan, Apellis, Bayer, Bausch + Lomb, Bioeq, Novartis, Pfizer; Speaker fees: Alimera, Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, Pfizer; Support for travel: Alimera, Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, Pfizer; Research sponsorship and funding: Allergan, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, CenterVue, Gyroscope, Novartis, Optos; Tariq Aslam: Tariq Aslam is an Editor in Chief of Ophthalmology and Therapy, and was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any subsequent editorial decisions. Consultant: Novartis, Bayer, Laboratoires, Théa Pharmaceuticals, Bausch & Lomb, Oraya; Chui Ming Gemmy Cheung: Financial support (to institution): Allergan, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novartis, Roche, Topcon, Zeiss; Stock: Avirmax; Bora Eldem: Consultant: Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, Roche; Robert P. Finger: Research grant: CentreVue, Heidelberg Engineering, Novartis, Zeiss; Consultant: Alimera, Allergan, Bayer, Ellex, Inositec, Novartis, Opthea, Roche/Genentech, Santhera; Support for travel: Novartis; Richard P. Gale: Consultant/advisory boards: Allergan, Alimera, Bayer, Novartis, Santen; Educational travel grants: Allergan, Bayer, Heidelberg, Novartis; Research grants: Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, Roche; Laurent Kodjikian: Consultant: AbbVie, Alcon, Allergan, Bayer, Krystal Biotech, Novartis, Regeneron, Théa; Adrian Koh: Consultant: Allergan, Bayer, Carl Zeiss, Heidelberg, Novartis, Topcon; Jean-François Korobelnik: Consultant: AbbVie, Apellis, Bayer, Eyepoint Pharma, Ocuphire, Roche, Thea, Carl Zeiss Meditec; Member of DSMB for Alexion, Novo Nordisk, Opthea; Xiaofeng Lin: Consultant: Bayer; Paul Mitchell: Consultant: Allergan, Bayer, Novartis; Steering Committee member: Bayer; Moira Murphy: Employee: Exploristics, Ltd.; Mali Okada: Non-financial support and personal fees: Bayer; Ian Pearce: Lecture fees: Allergan, Bayer, Heidelberg, Novartis; Consultant: Allergan, Alimera, Bayer, Novartis; Support for travel: Allergan, Bayer, Novartis; Francisco J. Rodriguez: Consultant: Bayer, Novartis, Roche; Speaker: Bayer, Novartis, Roche; Research funding: Novartis; Jude Stern: Employee: The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness; S. James Talks: Advisory board member, speaker fees, and research support: Bayer, Novartis; research grants: Boehringer Ingelheim, Roche; Consultant: Bayer; David T. Wong: Grants/research support: Bayer, Novartis, Roche; Consultant: Alcon, Allergan, Bausch Health, Bayer, Novartis, Topcon, Zeiss; Equity: Arctic DX; Tien Yin Wong: Clinical trial grants: Allergan, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Genentech, Merck, Novartis, Oxurion (formerly ThromboGenics), Roche, Samsung Bioepis, NMRC Singapore, Novartis Singapore; Consulting fees/travel support/review fees: Allergan, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Genentech, Merck, Novartis, Oxurion (formerly ThromboGenics), Roche, Samsung Bioepis; Stock: EyRIS, Plano; Focke Ziemssen: Travel grants and personal fees: Allergan, Alimera, Bayer Healthcare, Biogen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Clearside, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, MSD Sharp & Dohme, Roche, Optos; Jane Barratt: Consultant: Bayer. Ethical Approval: The survey was designed and developed according to the Declaration of Helsinki and the World Health Organization’s International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research. While the survey is a Primary Market Research Survey (which does not require ethics committee approval), individual institutions and countries assessed local requirements. Furthermore, informed consent was acquired, no personally identifiable information was collected, and treatment decisions were not informed by response to the survey., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Introduction: In contrast with patients receiving therapy for retinal disease during clinical trials, those treated in routine clinical practice experience various challenges (including administrative, clinic, social, and patient-related factors) that can often result in high patient and clinic burden, and contribute to suboptimal visual outcomes. The objective of this study was to understand the challenges associated with clinical management of diabetic macular edema from the perspectives of patients, healthcare providers, and clinic staff, and identify opportunities to improve eye care for people with diabetes., Methods: We conducted a survey of patients with diabetic macular edema, providers, and clinic staff in 78 clinics across 24 countries on six continents, representing a diverse range of individuals, healthcare systems, settings, and reimbursement models. Surveys comprised a series of single- and multiple-response questions completed anonymously. Data gathered included patient personal characteristics, challenges with appointment attendance, treatment experiences, and opportunities to improve support. Provider and clinic staff surveys asked similar questions about their perspectives; and clinic characteristics were also captured., Results: Overall, 5681 surveys were gathered: 3752 from patients with diabetic macular edema, 680 from providers, and 1249 from clinic staff. Too many appointments, too short treatment intervals, difficulties in traveling to the clinic or arranging adequate support to travel, out-of-pocket costs, office/parking fees, and long waiting times were noted by all as contributing to increase the burden on the patient and caregiver. Patients generally desired more in-depth discussions with their provider, which would help with information exchange and better expectation-setting., Conclusions: The wealth of systematic data generated by this global survey highlights the breadth and scale of challenges associated with the clinical management of patients with diabetic macular edema. Addressing the opportunities for improvement raised by patients, providers, and clinic staff could increase patient adherence to treatment, reduce appointment burden, and improve clinic capacity., Competing Interests: Declarations. Conflict of Interest: Focke Ziemssen: Travel grants and personal fees: Allergan/AbbVie, Alimera, Bayer Healthcare, Biogen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Clearside, Janssen, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Merck, Sharp & Dohme, Regeneron, Roche/Genentech, Sanofi, Sandoz, and Stada. Michelle Sylvanowicz: Employee: Bayer; Winfried M. Amoaku: Advisory board membership: AbbVie, Alcon, Alimera, Allergan, Apellis, Bayer, Bausch + Lomb, Bioeq, Novartis, and Pfizer; Speaker fees: Alimera, Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, and Pfizer; Support for travel: Alimera, Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, and Pfizer; Research sponsorship and funding: Allergan, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, CenterVue, Gyroscope, Novartis, and Optos; Tariq Aslam: Tariq Aslam is an Editor in Chief of Ophthalmology and Therapy, and was not involved in the selection of peer reviewers for the manuscript nor any subsequent editorial decisions. Consultant: Bausch & Lomb, Bayer, Laboratoires Théa Pharmaceuticals, Novartis, Oraya, and Roche; Bora Eldem: Consultant: Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, and Roche; Robert P. Finger: Research grant: CentreVue, Heidelberg Engineering, Novartis, and Zeiss; Consultant: Alimera, Allergan, Bayer, Ellex, Inositec, Novartis, Opthea, Roche/Genentech, and Santhera; Support for travel: Novartis; Richard P. Gale: Consultant/advisory boards: Allergan, Alimera, Bayer, Novartis, and Santen; Educational travel grants: Allergan, Bayer, Heidelberg, and Novartis; Research grants: Allergan, Bayer, Novartis, and Roche; Laurent Kodjikian: Consultant: AbbVie, Alcon, Allergan, Bayer, Krystal Biotech, Novartis, Regeneron, and Théa; Jean-François Korobelnik: Consultant: AbbVie, Apellis, Bayer, Eyepoint Pharma, Ocuphire, Roche, Thea, Carl Zeiss Meditec; Member of DSMB for Alexion, Novo Nordisk, Opthea; Xiaofeng Lin: Consultant: Bayer; Anat Loewenstein: Consultant: 4DMT, AbbVie, Alkeus, Annexon, Apellis, Astellas, Bayer Health Care, Beyeonics, Eyepoint, Johnson & Johnson, NotalVision, Novartis, Ocular Therapeutics, Oculis, Ocuphire Pharma, Ocuterra, Opthea, Oxurion, Roche, Syneos; Paul Mitchell: Consultant: Allergan, Bayer, and Novartis; Steering Committee member: Bayer; Moira Murphy: Employee: Exploristics, Ltd.; David R. Owens: Consultant: Bayer; Nick Parker: Employee: The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness; Ian Pearce: Lecture fees: Allergan, Bayer, Heidelberg Pharma, and Novartis; Consultant: Allergan, Alimera, Bayer, and Novartis, Support for travel: Allergan, Bayer, and Novartis; Francisco J. Rodríguez: Consultant: Bayer, Novartis, and Roche; Speaker: Bayer, Novartis, and Roche; Research funding: Novartis; Jude Stern: Employee: The International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness; S. James Talks: Advisory board member, speaker fees, and research support: Bayer and Novartis; Research grants: Boehringer Ingelheim and Roche; Consultant: Bayer; David T. Wong: Grants/research support: Bayer, Novartis, and Roche; Consultant: Alcon, Allergan, Apellis, Bausch Health, Bayer, Novartis, Roche, Topcon, and Zeiss; Equity: Arctic DX; Tien Yin Wong: Consulting fees/travel support/review fees: Aldropika Therapeutics, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Genentech, Iveric Bio, Novartis, Oxurion, Plano, Roche, Sanofi, Shanghai Henlius; Stock: EyRIS; Jane Barratt: Consultant: Bayer. Ethical Approval: The survey was developed according to guidelines from the Declaration of Helsinki and the World Health Organization’s International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research. As a Primary Market Research Survey, ethics committee approvals are not required; however, local requirements were assessed by individual institutions and countries. Informed consent was acquired, no personally identifiable information was collected, and the survey did not inform treatment decisions., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Visual impairment resulting from diseases such as neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) may cause behavioural, environmental, psychological, and logistical challenges that could act as barriers to effective uptake and sustainability of treatment with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents (anti-VEGFs). Understanding emotions and experiences of patients with nAMD may help inform the determinants of adherence, and could contribute to improvements in ophthalmic outcomes and quality of life., Methods: Seventeen patients with nAMD receiving anti-VEGF injections were enrolled from three clinics: one each in France (n = 5), Germany (n = 6), and the UK (n = 6). Patients' health information and treatment characteristics were collected. Individual phone interviews were conducted by experienced health care interviewers. Transcripts were analysed thematically., Results: Patients (53% female) had a mean age of 77 years. Bilateral anti-VEGF injections were received by 24% (n = 4); and most (76%, n = 13) were adherent to their treatment. Patient emotions at diagnosis ranged from happiness at learning about the treatment for nAMD to being terrified of receiving an injection in the eye. Most patients mentioned feeling anxious and fearful before their first injection despite receiving reassurance. After the first injection, these feelings and apprehension abated for many, but not all. With the goal of maintaining the best possible vision, few (24%, n = 4) patients reported more than one missed appointment, and most had never considered stopping treatment. No patient reported additional assistance beyond family support; however, many had difficulties with recreational and domestic activities and had developed coping strategies., Conclusion: This study provides insights on patients' emotions related to their experience of nAMD and its management, highlighting the varying experiences between individuals. It shows the importance of the patient's voice when considering patient care and management, and how the nature and timing of interventions can improve the experience of living with and managing nAMD., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Randomised controlled trials provide evidence that a treatment works. Real world evidence is required to assess if proven treatments are effective in practice., Method: Retrospective data collection on patients given aflibercept for diabetic macular oedema over 3 years from 21 UK hospitals: visual acuity (VA); Index of multiple deprivation score (IMD); injection numbers; protocols used, compared as a cohort and between sites., Results: Complete data: 1742 patients (from 2196 eligible) at 1 year, 860 (from 1270) at 2, 305 (from 506) at 3 years. The median VA improved from 65 to 71, 70, 70 (ETDRS letters) at 1, 2 and 3 years with 6, 9 and 12 injections, respectively. Loss to follow-up: 10% 1 year, 28.8% at 3. Centres varied: baseline: mean age 61-71 years (p < 0.0001); mean IMD score 15-37 (p < 0.0001); mean VA 49-68 (p < 0.0001). Only four centres provided a loading course of five injections at monthly intervals and one 6. This did not alter VA outcome at 1 year. Higher IMD was associated with younger age (p = 0.0023) and worse VA at baseline (p < 0.0001) not total number of injections or change in VA. Lower starting VA, higher IMD and older age were associated with lower adherence (p = 0.0010)., Conclusions: The data showed significant variation between treatment centres for starting age, VA and IMD which influenced adherence and chances of good VA. Once treatment was started IMD did not alter likelihood of improvement. Loading dose intensity did not alter outcome at one year., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Current guidelines on the management of patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD) lack clear recommendations on the interpretation of fluid as seen on optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging and the incorporation of this information into an ongoing disease treatment strategy. Our objective was to review current guidelines and scientific evidence on the role of fluid as a biomarker in the management of nAMD, and develop a clinically oriented, practical algorithm for diagnosis and management based on a consensus of expert European retinal specialists. PubMed was searched for articles published since 2006 relating to the role of fluid in nAMD. A total of 654 publications were screened for relevance and 66 publications were included for review. Of these, 14 were treatment guidelines, consensus statements and systematic reviews or meta-analyses, in which OCT was consistently recommended as an important tool in the initial diagnosis and ongoing management of nAMD. However, few guidelines distinguished between types of fluid when providing recommendations. A total of 52 publications reported primary evidence from clinical trials, studies, and chart reviews. Observations from these were sometimes inconsistent, but trends were observed with regard to features reported as being predictive of visual outcomes. Based on these findings, diagnostic recommendations and a treatment algorithm based on a treat-and-extend (T&E) regimen were developed. These provide guidance on the diagnosis of nAMD as well as a simple treatment pathway based on the T&E regimen, with treatment decisions made according to the observations of fluid as a critical biomarker for disease activity., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Importance: Poor adherence or persistence to treatment can be a barrier to optimizing clinical practice (real-world) outcomes to intravitreal injection therapy in patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD). Currently, there is a lack of consensus on the definition and classification of adherence specific to this context., Objective: To describe the development and validation of terminology on patient nonadherence and nonpersistence to anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy., Design, Setting, and Participants: Following a systematic review of currently used terminology in the literature, a subcommittee panel of retinal experts developed a set of definitions and classification for validation. Definitions were restricted to use in patients with nAMD requiring intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy. Validation by the full nAMD Barometer Leadership Coalition was established using a modified Delphi approach, with predetermined mean scores of 7.5 or more signifying consensus. Subsequent endorsement of the definitions was provided from a second set of retinal experts, with more than 50% members agreeing or strongly agreeing with all definitions., Main Outcomes and Measures: Development of consensus definitions for the terms adherence and persistence and a classification system for the factors associated with treatment nonadherence or nonpersistence in patients with nAMD., Results: Nonadherence was defined as missing 2 or more treatment or monitoring visits over a period of 12 months, with a visit considered missed if it exceeded more than 2 weeks from the recommended date. Nonpersistence was defined by nonattendance or an appointment not scheduled within the last 6 months. The additional terms planned discontinuation and transfer of care were also established. Reasons for treatment nonadherence and nonpersistence were classified into 6 dimensions: (1) patient associated, (2) condition associated, (3) therapy associated, (4) health system and health care team associated, (5) social/economic, and (6) other, with subcategories specific to treatment for nAMD., Conclusions and Relevance: This classification system provides a framework for assessing treatment nonadherence and nonpersistence over time and across different health settings in the treatment of nAMD with current intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatments. This may have additional importance, given the potential association of the coronavirus pandemic on adherence to treatment in patients with nAMD.

Purpose: Central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) can be complicated by macular oedema, requiring intravitreal injection (IVI) of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). CRVO can cause neovascularisation, potentially causing persistent pain if not identified early. Whilst clinical trial data describe visual and anti-neovascular benefit from anti-VEGF there are limited real-world data., Methods: A retrospective cohort study of a consecutive series of patients found from a review of the electronic medical record at a single UK centre. Visual acuity, macula status, number of IVIs and neovascular status were extracted at standardised timepoints., Results: In total, 231 eyes from 231 patients were identified with 6-48 months of follow up. Twenty-four months after treatment initiation, 81 eyes (53.3%) had no remaining macula oedema and mean visual acuity gained was 8.9 (SD 19.0) Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) letters following a mean of 10.1 (3.9) IVIs. Of 222 eyes that had no initial neovascularisation, 11 went on to develop it, with iris involvement in 10 eyes. Median time from treatment initiation to neovascularisation was 17.2 (range 5.0-44.1) months, and the median time from latest IVI to neovascularisation was 9.6 (2.9-27.6) months after a median of 4 (3-10) IVIs., Conclusions: Visual acuity in CRVO complicated by macular oedema improves following anti-VEGF treatment but real-world gains are more modest than those from clinical trials. Neovascularisation following CRVO can be substantially delayed by anti-VEGF treatment and so if individuals who have received IVIs are to be effectively screened for neovascularisation long-term surveillance is necessary.

Topic: Systematic review of risk factors for nonadherence and nonpersistence to intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) injection therapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD)., Clinical Relevance: Lack of adherence (nonadherence) or undertreatment (nonpersistence) with respect to evidence from clinical trials remains a significant barrier to optimizing real-world outcomes for patients with nAMD. Contributing factors and strategies to address this are poorly understood., Methods: Studies that reported factors for nonadherence and nonpersistence to anti-VEGF therapy as well as studies examining strategies to improve this were included. Trial eligibility and data extraction were conducted according to Cochrane review methods. Risk of bias was assessed using the Mixed Method Assessment Tool and certainty of evidence evaluated according to the GRADE Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative Research tool. Data were collated descriptively., Results: Of the 1284 abstract results screened, 124 articles were assessed in full and 37 studies met the inclusion criteria. Definitions of nonadherence and nonpersistence varied or were not reported. Nonpersistence occurred early, with up to 50% of patients stopping treatment by 24 months. High rates of nonadherence were similarly reported, occurring in 32% to 95% of patients. Certainty of this finding was downgraded to a moderate level because of the heterogeneity in definitions used across studies. Multiple factors determine nonadherence and nonpersistence, including at the condition, therapy, patient, social/economic, and health systems/healthcare team levels. Moderate quality evidence points to lower baseline vision and poorer response to treatment as condition-related variables. The effects of other factors were of lower certainty, predominantly due to small numbers and potential biases in retrospective assessment. Although many factors are not modifiable (e.g., patient comorbidity), other factors are potentially correctable (e.g., lack of transport or mismatched patient expectations). Evidence on strategies to improve adherence and persistence is limited, but where available, these have proven effective., Conclusions: Awareness of factors related to poor patient adherence and persistence in nAMD could help identify at-risk populations and improve real-world outcomes. Further work is required to develop uniform definitions and establish high-quality evidence on interventions that can be easily implemented., (Copyright © 2020 American Academy of Ophthalmology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Diabetic macular oedema (DMO) is effectively treated with ranibizumab but multiple injections are required. Where there is also peripheral ischaemia, it has been promoted that targeted panretinal photocoagulation (PRP) may reduce the number of injections., Method: Patients with optical coherence tomography confirmed DMO and Ultra-widefield Fundus Fluorescein Angiography confirmed peripheral retinal ischaemia were randomised to PRP plus ranibizumab or ranibizumab monotherapy. After three injections, repeat injections were given until the visual acuity was stable and the macula was dry. Re-treatment was given if there was a drop of visual acuity and/or a recurrence of intra-retinal fluid. The primary outcome was the number of repeat injections required after the first 6 months up until 1 year., Results: There were 49 patients, 25 in the ranibizumab only group and 24 in the ranibizumab + PRP group recruited at seven UK sites. The average number of injections in the ranibizumab-only arm was 6.84 over 1 year and 2.52 between months 6 and 12. The average number of injections in the combined arm was 6.67, with the number of injections in the second 6 months 1.92. For the primary outcome, comparing the number of 6- to 12-month injections, the result was not statistically significant (p = 0.33)., Conclusion: The addition of targeted PRP to areas of non-perfusion in a patient with DMO does not reduce the number of injections required in the first year. It seems most likely that local VEGF at the macula is the main cause of DMO.

Importance: Threshold of retinal nonperfusion for the development of proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) is unclear., Objectives: To identify a threshold of retinal nonperfusion for the presence of retinal neovascularization and the distribution and area of retinal nonperfusion in eyes with severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), PDR, neovascularization of the optic disc (NVD), and retinal neovascularization elsewhere (NVE)., Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional image analysis study was performed between September 24, 2018, and October 24, 2018, at a multicenter national study in the United Kingdom. Baseline images were obtained from 2 completed randomized clinical trials (Ranibizumab for Diabetic Macular Edema Panretinal Photocoagulation [RDP] study and Clinical Efficacy of Intravitreal Aflibercept vs Panretinal Photocoagulation for Best Corrected Visual Acuity in Patients With Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy at 52 Weeks [CLARITY] study). The RDP study recruited eyes with severe NPDR between April 1, 2014, and December 31, 2015, and the CLARITY study recruited eyes with PDR between August 22, 2014, and November 20, 2015. Ultra-widefield angiography images of eyes with no prior panretinal photocoagulation treatment were included., Main Outcomes and Measures: The total area of retinal nonperfusion, the area of posterior pole retinal nonperfusion, and the area of peripheral retinal nonperfusion were measured., Results: A total of 92 patients (92 eyes) were included in the study: 59 in the PDR group (mean [SD] age, 42 [15] years; 20 female [33.9%]) and 33 in the NPDR group (mean [SD] age, 63 [10] years; 3 female [9.1%]). Forty eyes had NVE and 19 had NVD with or without NVE. We identified a retinal nonperfusion threshold of 118.3 disc areas (DA) with a specificity of 84.9% (95% CI, 68.1% to 94.9%) for PDR. The median area of retinal nonperfusion was 67.8 DA (95% CI, 44.2 to 107.3 DA) in the NPDR eyes and 147.9 DA (95% CI, 127.4 to 173.5 DA) for eyes with proliferative changes, with a difference of 69.0 DA (95% CI, 42.2 to 97.7 DA; P < .001). No difference was found in the median area of posterior nonperfusion between NPDR and PDR, with a difference of 0 DA (95% CI, -6.7 to 5.2 DA; P = .56). As for peripheral nonperfusion, NPDR eyes measured 64.1 DA and PDR eyes measured 130.6 DA, with a difference of 70.8 DA (95% CI, 48.4 to 94.9 DA; P < .001). Eyes with NVD had the largest total area of retinal nonperfusion, with a difference of 65.1 DA (95% CI, 28.6 to 95.8 DA; P < .001) compared with eyes with only NVE., Conclusions and Relevance: These findings suggest eyes with at least 107.3 DA of nonperfusion are at risk of proliferative disease, and eyes with NVD have the largest area of retinal nonperfusion.

Background: An increasingly elderly population with a corresponding increase in ophthalmic conditions has led to increased pressure on hospital eye services (HES). In this study, we evaluated the use of a medical retina virtual clinic (MRVC), which has expanded into assessing all new medical retina referrals, where the need for urgent treatment was not clear., Methods: Retrospective analysis of all new patients who were seen in the MRVC between April 2016 and May 2018. Pro forma sheets were used in the MRVC to record the patient history, visual acuity, and type of imaging required. Two consultants reviewed the completed pro formas and images and provided a final diagnosis and management plan. These results and reasons for face-to-face (F2F) clinic appointment requests were analyzed., Results: Six hundred ten new referrals were enrolled in the virtual clinic. The most common diagnosis was diabetic eye disease (59.9%). In the virtual clinic 44.1% were followed up, 28.1% were discharged, and 27.8% were booked an F2F clinic appointment (urgent/routine). The main reason for F2F clinic was to offer treatment. Urgent F2F appointments took place on average 11.9 days after virtual clinic attendance. In only two cases was the image quality felt to be inadequate to assess the retina., Conclusions: MRVC is an effective way of triaging medical retina referrals to allow those patients needing treatment to be seen promptly in the medical retinal service. The use of multimodal ultra-widefield and optical coherence tomography imaging allows assessment of a wide range of retinal pathologies and is a promising solution to alleviate the burden on HES., Competing Interests: Disclosure S James Talks has been a member of a medical advisory board for Optos and Medisoft with Heidelberg Engineering. The other authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Purpose: To describe a previously unreported case of Purtscher-like retinopathy secondary to severe acute renal failure associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix., Methods: This is a case report., Results: A 31-year-old female presented with a week history of acute abdominal pain, vomiting and severe renal failure followed by a sudden onset of bilateral visual loss. Vision was hand movement in either eye with central scotoma. Ophthalmic examination demonstrated bilateral retinal thickening and whitening with intraretinal hemorrhages localized to the peripapillary area, consistent with the diagnosis of Purtscher-like retinopathy. Further systemic examination revealed bilateral hydronephrosis secondary to underlying undiagnosed cervical carcinoma. Patient was treated with a short course of high-dose steroids. At 2 months, patient vision remained poor despite the resolution of retinal edema and hemorrhages., Conclusions: This case serves as the first report of Purtscher-like retinopathy secondary to acute renal failure associated with cervical carcinoma, expanding the list of causes of Purtscher's or Purtscher-like retinopathies. In the presence of significant uremia and absence of previously known association, the authors postulate that the sudden surge of uremia causes increase of endothelin-1 (a potent vasoconstrictor), resulting in downstream endothelin-induced vasculopathy with subsequent occlusion of the pre-capillary arteriolar network.

The use of imaging for age-related macular degeneration (AMD) depends on how it benefits clinical management and on reimbursement. The latter should relate to the former. This review assesses how different forms of AMD can be imaged and what information this provides. For nonneovascular AMD high-resolution optical coherence tomography (OCT), autofluorescence, and near infrared imaging can identify the type of drusen, such as reticular pseudodrusen, which influences prognosis, and the amount of atrophy, for which phase 3 trials are underway. Clarifying the correct diagnosis for late-onset Stargardt and macular telangiectasia, if treatment becomes available, will be especially important. Choroidal thickness can be measured and changes with anti‒vascular endothelial growth factor treatment, but how this influences management is less clear. The finding of a thick choroid may alter the diagnosis to pachychoroid neovasculopathy, which may have a different treatment response. Peripheral retinal changes are commonly found on ultrawide-field imaging but their importance is not yet determined. The mainstay of imaging is OCT, which can detect neovascular AMD by detecting thickening and be used for follow-up, as the presence or absence of thickening is the main determinant of treatment. Higher resolution systems and now OCT angiography are able to distinguish neovascular type, especially type 2 choroidal neovascularization but also polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy and retinal angiomatous proliferation. Fundus fluorescein and indocyanine green angiographies still have a role, although that partly depends on whether photodynamic therapy is being considered. Automated image analysis and machine learning will be increasingly important in supporting clinician decisions., (Copyright 2017 Asia-Pacific Academy of Ophthalmology.)

Introduction: Wide-field retinal imaging (Optomap), used for detecting diabetic retinopathy (DR), has been shown to compare well with seven-field early treatment diabetic retinopathy study (ETDRS) photographs. An Optomap 200° image covers 80% of the retinal surface, compared with the standard seven-field, 30° images, covering 30% of the retinal surface. In England, DR screening is performed by grading two, 45° images per eye, by the DR screening service (DRSS)., Purpose: To assess how often retinal new vessels (NVs) are observed on Optomap imaging, outside the DRSS two fields and standard seven-field photography, in a cohort of patients referred by the DRSS., Method: A consecutive series of treatment naïve patients with DR, referred from DRSS with pre-proliferative or proliferative DR or diabetic maculopathy, were imaged with Optomap colour images, within 3 months of DRSS referral. The incidence and distribution of NVs were recorded in relation to two-field and seven-field areas., Results: NVs were found in 102 of 1562 treatment naïve eyes (6.5%) of 781 patients. Of these, 72 were referred from DRSS as having NVs, but an additional 30 eyes (29% of NVs detected) from 25 patients were referred with a lesser degree of DR. In 25 of the 30 eyes without NVs reported on referral, NVs were located outside the standard two fields taken at DRSS, and in 12, NVs were outside the area covered on seven-field imaging (11.7% of eyes with NVs)., Conclusions: Wide-field imaging with Optomap detected approximately 30% more NVs than standard two-field imaging in patients referred from a UK DRSS., (Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://www.bmj.com/company/products-services/rights-and-licensing/)

Aim: To analyse the benefit of intravitreal ranibizumab over 4 years for patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration (AMD)., Methods: A retrospective case note review of all patients who started treatment between August 2007 and September 2009 in our unit, minimum follow-up 2 years, maximum 4 years. The main outcome measures were: numbers of patients with different levels of vision, changes in visual acuity, number of treatments and numbers remaining under follow-up., Results: 1086 eyes of 1017 patients received treatment. Numbers of patients remaining under follow-up were 892/1017 (87.71%) at 12 months, 730/1017 (71.78%) at 24 months, 468/730 (64.11%) at 36 months and 110/217 (50.69%) at 48 months. The main reasons for patients no longer being under follow-up were the consequences of old age or transfer of care. 50% of patients had 6/18 or better over 4 years. Patients received on average 5.79 ± 2.53, 9.15 ± 3.79, 11.22 ± 4.92 and 13.7 ± 7.84 injections by 12, 24, 36 and 48 months, respectively., Conclusions: We suggest that the numbers of patients with a particular level of vision may best reflect the actual benefit of AMD treatment provided by a service. Long-term follow-up is required as only 72/730 (10%) had been discharged at 36 months, half of whom had good vision of greater than 60 letters. 83% and 65% of patients needed treatment in the third and fourth year. Follow-up may be for the rest of the patients' life or at some point they may no longer be well enough to attend.

A 24-year-old female patient presented with sudden onset of paracentral visual field defects of the right eye, which were noticed 2 months before the clinical examination. The slit lamp examination of the anterior and posterior segments showed unremarkable findings but three oval, well demarcated, hyporeflective areas were noticed in the right posterior pole in infrared fundus photographs. A similar small area was found in the left posterior pole. Optical coherence tomography (Cirrus OCT) showed a structural defect of the hyperreflective bands of the outer retina. The diagnosis of acute macular neuroretinopathy was made.

Background: Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE) is a genetic disorder characterized by fragmentation and calcification of elastic fibres with resultant pathological changes in the dermis, Bruch's membrane and blood vessels. Defects in Bruch's membrane produce angioid streaks on the retina but this appearance is not pathognomonic of PXE. Biopsy of clinically normal skin or scar tissue in patients with angioid streaks may show the histological features of PXE., Objectives: To test the hypothesis that biopsy of clinically normal skin is a useful investigation in patients with angioid streaks., Methods: This prospective study investigated 18 consecutive patients with angioid streaks. Each patient underwent a full dermatological examination and was investigated for diseases known to be associated with angioid streaks. Axillary skin biopsies were taken from 14 consenting patients., Results: Typical PXE was found in 11 patients. No other diseases associated with angioid streaks were identified. Five patients had angioid streaks in the absence of systemic disease. Two patients had nondiagnostic dermatological features which were not clarified by histology. Two of the 11 patients with PXE showed histological evidence of PXE from clinically normal axillary skin. However, in both cases flexural skin elsewhere showed the typical clinical and histological features of PXE., Conclusions: This study demonstrates the association between angioid streaks and PXE. However, it does not support the hypothesis that biopsy of normal-looking skin is helpful in the investigation of adult patients with angioid streaks.

Purpose: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with verteporfin combined with intravitreal triamcinolone (TA) in retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP)., Design: Retrospective, consecutive, noncomparative case series., Methods: Patients newly diagnosed with RAP underwent indocyanine green angiography (ICGA)-guided PDT with verteporfin, immediately followed by intravitreal TA. Complete ocular examination, fluorescein angiography (FA), ICGA, and optical coherence tomography (OCT) were performed at baseline and follow-up visits every three months., Results: Seventeen eyes of seventeen patients underwent this simultaneous combined treatment. All patients had 12 months of follow-up. Complete resolution of angiographic leakage was achieved in 83% at 12 months. Visual acuity improved in 35%, and was stable in 47%. Eleven patients developed recurrent leakage after six to 12 months, which settled completely after repeat combined treatment., Conclusions: This simultaneous combined treatment in patients with RAP was effective in reducing or eliminating retinal edema, regression of neovascularization, and stabilizing or improving visual acuity.

Purpose: To assess the short-term effects of argon laser on retinal thickening as demonstrated by optical coherence tomography (OCT)., Methods: A prospectively collected consecutive series of patients undergoing routine focal argon laser treatment for sight-threatening diabetic maculopathy had bilateral OCT performed before laser treatment and 1 hour, 24 hours, and 2 weeks after treatment. The main outcome measure was change in retinal thickness in the region of laser treatment., Results: Forty-six eyes were analyzed. There was a small increase in retinal thickness in the treated area 1 hour after laser treatment, with a mean change from before laser treatment of +2.6 microm (95% confidence interval [CI], +0.2 to + 5.0). However, there was a larger change 24 hours after treatment of +39.0 microm (95% CI, +31.6 to + 46.4) and a significant decrease 2 weeks after treatment of -14.6 microm (95% CI, -21.6 to -7.7) from before laser treatment values., Conclusion: Focal argon laser treatment remains the first-line treatment for sight-threatening diabetic maculopathy. This study shows that in the short-term, areas of retinal thickening worsen before settling in response to argon laser treatment as demonstrated by OCT.

Aims: To assess the correlation between optical coherence tomography (OCT) and leakage on fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA) following photodynamic therapy (PDT) with verteporfin for choroidal neovascularisation (CNV)., Methods: Retrospective comparative observational case series of patients who were treated with PDT for CNV from one centre. All patients had 3 monthly FFA and OCT following initial PDT to assess if further treatment was required. A pair of FFA and OCT images from the same visit at a random follow up date were taken from each patient's series and assessed separately by different observers. The presence of pigment epithelial detachment, subretinal fluid, vitreomacular traction, intraretinal fluid, absence of foveal depression, and the retinal thickness on OCT were correlated with presence of leaks on FFA., Results: A total of 121 eyes of 121 patients were included. The presence of subretinal fluid, gross cystoid macular oedema, sponge-like retinal thickening and retinal thickness of more than 350 mum on OCT correlated well with leak on FFA (p value <0.01). The likelihood ratios were 3.0, 5.7, 2.7, and 3.6, respectively. The presence of a solitary foveal cyst did not correlate well with leaks on FFA., Conclusions: The presence of subretinal fluid, intraretinal fluid in the form of gross cystoid macular oedema, or sponge-like retinal thickening, or a retinal thickness more than 350 mum correlates with leaks on FFA and so suggests the need for repeat PDT.

Objective: To assess if posterior juxtascleral application of 40 mg triamcinolone acetonide (TA), given at the same time as initial photodynamic therapy (PDT) for predominantly classic choroidal neovascularization (CNV) related to age-related macular degeneration affects lesion growth at 3 and 6 months., Design: Comparative (nonrandomized) interventional study., Participants: The study group consists of 38 eyes of 38 patients. The control group consists of 73 eyes of 73 patients., Methods: Comparison of 2 consecutive case series collected at different times. The study group had a posterior juxtascleral TA with their initial PDT treatment. The controls were treated with PDT alone. All patients were reviewed at 1, 3, and 6 months., Main Outcome Measures: Change in total lesion size; secondary outcomes: area of leak, best-corrected visual acuity, number of treatments, and intraocular pressure., Results: There was significantly less growth of total lesion at 3 months (mean difference = 2.47 mm2; 95% confidence interval (CI): +1.22 to +3.72 mm2; P = 0.0002) and 6 months (mean difference = 2.88 mm2; 95% CI: +0.61 to +5.15 mm2; P = 0.0134) in patients given TA with PDT compared with PDT alone. There was also a significantly smaller residual area of leak at 3 months in the study group (mean difference = 1.07 mm2; 95% CI: +0.16 to +1.97 mm2; P = 0.02). At 6 months, the residual area of leak between the 2 groups became comparable (mean difference = 0.13 mm2; 95% CI = -1.59 to +1.33 mm2; P = 0.86). Mean number of letters lost on the logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution chart at 6 months was 9.1 letters (standard error of the mean [SEM] = 2.21) in the study group compared with 12.4 letters (SEM = 1.91) in the control group (P = 0.30). At 6 months, 10 of 36 eyes (27.8%) in the study group showed > or =15 letters loss, compared with 29 of 73 eyes (39.7%) in the control group. Intraocular pressure was raised in 4 of 38 eyes (10.5%). Fewer retreatments were required in the TA with PDT group (2.03 compared with 2.47 [P = 0.006])., Conclusions: Posterior juxtascleral placement of TA with PDT at baseline significantly reduces CNV growth at 3 and 6 months. Fewer retreatments were required. Visual outcome may be improved, although we did not show a statistically significant improvement with this sample size. A larger, randomized trial with longer follow-up is justified.

Aims: To assess the diagnostic accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT), with/without colour fundus photographs, in predicting fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA) findings in patients suspected of having choroidal neovascularisation (CNV)., Methods: A consecutive series of patients suspected of having CNV underwent OCT and stereo FFA images, which were assigned a diagnosis by two masked observers, one examining OCT alone and then OCT plus stereo colour photographs, and one examining FFA alone. The main outcome measures were the diagnostic accuracy of OCT (with/without colour photos) in predicting the presence of CNV and secondly the characteristics of the CNV compared to the FFA findings., Results: 131 eyes of 118 patients were analysed. The sensitivity and specificity of OCT for detecting new potentially treatable CNV lesions compared to FFA was 96.4%, and 66.0%, respectively. For OCT with stereo images the sensitivity was 94.0% and specificity 89.4%. For detecting CNV with a classic component the sensitivity and specificity of OCT alone was 78.6% and 82.7%. With stereo colour images the sensitivity was 82.1% and specificity 89.3%., Conclusion: OCT is good at detecting the presence of CNV in patients suspected of having new CNV. However, it is less accurate at identifying the exact components of CNV. OCT cannot at present replace FFA in accurately diagnosing CNV components. However, this imaging method may have a role as a screening tool to help prioritise FFA requests.

Purpose: To report the 12-month results on the use of verteporfin photodynamic therapy (PDT) in the treatment of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) secondary to angioid streaks., Study Design: Five-center prospective case series., Methods: Patients with CNV secondary to angioid streaks who were treated with PDT were recruited and followed up at 3-month intervals for 12 months, with the addition of visits at 1.5 and 4.5 months if deemed appropriate by the investigator. Best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) was measured at each visit after full refraction or with their current distance spectacles using Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution charts. Stereoscopic fundus fluorescein angiography was used to determine baseline lesion characteristics and location., Results: Twenty-two patients were recruited (23 eyes, 16 with subfoveal CNV and 7 with juxtafoveal; all classic no occult). Seventeen patients (77%) had angioid streaks secondary to pseudoxanthoma elasticum. In the subfoveal group, median BCVA at baseline was 49 letters (approximate Snellen equivalent, 20/100) and was 46 at 12 months (approximate Snellen equivalent, 20/125). Twelve of 16 eyes (75%) lost fewer than 8 letters, whereas 14 of 16 eyes (88%) lost fewer than 15 letters. The mean CNV greatest linear dimension (GLD) was 2520 microm at baseline. At 12 months, 7 of 16 eyes with subfoveal CNV at baseline were leaking (GLD = 3220 microm; P = 0.62). The mean number of treatments in the first 12 months was 2.9. In the juxtafoveal group, the median BCVA at baseline was 66 letters (approximate Snellen equivalent, 20/50) and was 51 letters at 12 months (approximate Snellen equivalent, 20/100). Two of 7 eyes (29%) gained 8 or more letters at the 12-month examination, whereas 4 of 7 eyes (57%) lost more than 15 letters. The mean CNV GLD at baseline was 1890 microm. At 12 months, 1 of 7 eyes with juxtafoveal CNV at baseline was leaking. Choroidal neovascularization progressed from juxtafoveal to subfoveal location during the follow-up period in 4 of 7 eyes. The mean number of treatments in the first 12 months was 3.4. No side effects were noted in either patient group., Conclusions: This small series suggests that treatment of CNV secondary to angioid streaks with verteporfin PDT seems to limit visual loss in most patients through the first 12 months of follow-up, particularly in those with subfoveal lesions at baseline.

Purpose: To assess the patients who have had photodynamic therapy (PDT) in the Northern region of the UK, in relation to the eligibility criteria found to benefit in the TAP study (treatment of age-related macular degeneration with photodynamic therapy study), so as to make an estimate of the number of patients who might benefit from this treatment and to present the outcome of the treatment so far., Method: The records and fluorescein angiograms (FFAs) of all patients who had had PDT in the Northern region between 2001 and 2002 were reviewed for compliance with the TAP criteria of >50% classic choroidal neovascularization and >34 letters on the 2 m logMAR Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study chart. NHS funding has been available in the Northern Region since January 2001 for 'second eye' involvement. A review of all the angiograms performed for exudative macular degeneration in 1 year was also performed. The visual outcome of those patients 1 year from baseline was measured., Results: A total of 82 'second eye' patients were treated between January 2001 and December 2002. This gives an incidence of 65 per 3 million and so about 1300 in the whole of the UK (population 60 million). In all, 238 FFAs were performed on exudative macular degeneration, with 21% being found eligible for PDT. As of February 2003, 54 TAP criteria, macular degeneration patients were 1 year from initial treatment. Of these, 12 had incomplete follow-up and 13 patients had lost more than 15 letters. The responder rate defined as losing <15 letters was 42-13/42=69%. Seven of those who did not make 1-year follow-up had lost more than 15 letters when last seen, giving a responder rate of 54-20/54=63%., Conclusion: There may not be as many patients eligible for PDT, using the TAP criteria, as previously hoped. The outcome of treatment appears similar to that found in the TAP study.

Purpose: To report two eyes (two patients) that had plate haptic silicone intraocular lenses that dislocated 4 weeks after Nd:YAG laser anterior capsulotomy to relieve capsular contraction., Methods: Case reports. The clinical records of two patients were reviewed., Results: After uncomplicated phacoemulsification with implantation of plate haptic silicone lenses in the capsular bag, two eyes of two patients developed visually notable early contraction of the capsulorhexis. Three radial-relieving incisions approximately 1 mm long were made with a Nd:YAG laser in each eye to enlarge the capsulotomy. Although vision improved, both patients experienced sudden further reduction of vision after approximately 4 weeks. Upon examination of both patients, we noted an extension of an anterior radial capsulotomy incision peripherally, and the intraocular lenses had dislocated from the capsular bag into the ciliary sulcus., Conclusions: Tears may extend after radial-relieving incisions have been used to enlarge a contracted anterior capsulotomy, possibly because of continued capsular fibrosis. This may allow extrusion of a foldable intraocular lens from the capsular bag.

Purpose: To describe the significance of macular changes to visual outcome in benign intracranial hypertension (BIH)., Method: The clinical and photographic records of 24 patients with BIH who required optic nerve sheath fenestration were analysed., Results: Macular changes were found in 21 of 48 (44%) eyes. These were: choroidal folds 9; circumferential lines (Paton's lines) 4; nerve fibre layer haemorrhage 3; macular stars 5; macular oedema 6; retinal pigment epithelial changes 4; subretinal haemorrhage leading to a macular scar 1. Significant visual loss attributable to the macular changes was found in 5 eyes in the short term and 3 in the long term. The 2 eyes that improved had macular stars. Of the 3 eyes that did not improve, 2 eyes had retinal pigment epithelial changes and 1 a large subretinal haemorrhage that led to a macular scar. These 3 cases had long-standing BIH., Conclusions: The majority of macular changes resolve and do not add to visual loss from optic nerve damage. Patients with marked macular oedema are at most risk of permanent visual loss and should be considered for early treatment such as optic nerve sheath fenestration.

Purpose: To report a rare case of angle-closure glaucoma, secondary to the rapid development of a choroidal effusion, in a patient with a long-standing cavernous-dural shunt., Methods: Case report. Investigations included computed tomographic scan, magnetic resonance imaging, and carotid angiography., Results: The development of the choroidal effusion occurred because of partial thrombosis of the ipsilateral superior ophthalmic vein and cavernous sinus. Drainage of the choroidal effusion resolved the angle-closure glaucoma., Conclusions: The combination of worsening signs and evidence of thrombosis indicates impending resolution of a cavernous-dural shunt. However, if a choroidal effusion causes angle-closure glaucoma, prompt surgical drainage should be considered to prevent permanent peripheral anterior synechiae formation, with the expectation that the effusion will not recur.

Purpose: To demonstrate the use of Nd:YAG laser in clearing the anterior surface of posterior chamber intraocular lenses., Method: Six cases are presented with the following conditions: haemorrhage, inflammatory deposits, a fibrinous papillary membrane, capsulorhexis shrinkage., Results: Nd:YAG laser was successful in managing each of these cases., Conclusion: With careful use Nd:YAG laser clearance of the anterior surface of a posterior chamber intraocular lens can be carried out successfully without damaging the lens.

Two cases of oculopalatal myoclonus with bilateral horizontal gaze palsies are presented. The abnormal vertical eye movements developed several months after brain stem haemorrhage. Eye movement measurements showed rhythmical vertical eye movements at similar rates (2.3 Hz and 2.4 Hz), unaffected by attempts to fixate, converge or gaze in any direction. T2-weighted MRI scans showed bilateral enlargement of the inferior olivary nuclei in both cases, which confirms the expected pathology previously demonstrated on autopsy. Both patients had severe oscillopsia and an attempt was made to improve this by bilateral disinsertion of the vertical rectus muscles. The pendular eye movements continued but were greatly reduced, in one case enough to relieve the oscillopsia. However, after 6 months retrobulbar botulinum toxin was required to continue to provide relief from the oscillopsia. Other treatment options, including pharmacological agents, are discussed.

Thirty-four patients with accelerated hypertension were clinically examined. The visual evoked potential (VEP) and electroretinogram (ERG) were recorded: acutely in 12 patients, being repeated in 7 patients up to 6 months later. In the remaining 22 patients these tests were performed 2-4 years after presentation. Visual acuity was < or = 6/12 in 22 of 68 (32%) eyes at presentation and < or = 6/12 in 10 of 58 (19%) eyes at follow-up. The cause of severest loss of vision appeared to be anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy, found in 3 cases. During the acute stage 11 patients (92%) had abnormal VEPs and all had abnormal ERGs. The group mean P100 latency, of the 7 patients (14 eyes) seen acutely and followed up at 6 months, was 123.8 ms with significant recovery of latency (p < 0.005) to 110.9 ms. The ERGs, however, remained reduced and delayed. In those patients recorded 2-4 years after their acute episode the VEP was abnormal in only 2 patients (9%); group mean P100 latency was 109.1 ms. However, 18 patients (82%) had abnormal ERGs. We suggest that during the acute stage of accelerated hypertension there is a high incidence of ischaemic optic neuropathy that usually resolves but can cause a permanent anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy, in addition to vascular retinopathy that persists.

Ethmoidal sinuses intervening between the lacrimal sac and the nose can cause confusion when performing a dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR). This study aimed to assess the frequency of entry into ethmoidal sinuses when performing a DCR and to identify any helpful distinguishing features, at surgery, between the ethmoidal and nasal spaces. Ethmoidal sinuses were initially entered in 23 of 50 standard DCRs (46%) in which the ostium was performed via the standard lacrimal fissure. Nasal mucosa was found to be 2 to 3 times thicker than ethmoidal sinus mucosa and less friable. Being aware of the risk of entering an ethmoidal sinus and of the anatomical differences between ethmoidal and nasal tissue greatly aids location during surgery and allows edge-to-edge suturing of sac mucosa to nasal mucosa in all cases.