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Context: Exertional heat stroke (EHS) is the most deadly form the exertional heat illness with a higher incidence among active duty US military members than in the general population. Current guidelines on EHS recovery timelines and return to duty vary among the military branches. In some cases, individuals experience prolonged heat and exercise intolerance with repeat exertional heat illness events, which can complicate the recovery process. Management and rehabilitation of such individuals is unclear. Case Presentation: This manuscript addresses the case and management of a US Air Force Special Warfare trainee who experienced 2 episodes of EHS, despite early recognition, gold standard treatment, and undergoing 4 weeks of a stepwise recovery after an initial EHS. Management and Outcomes: After the second episode, a 3-step process was utilized, consisting of a prolonged and personalized recovery period, heat tolerance testing using Israeli Defense Force advanced modeling, and stepwise reacclimatization. This process allowed the trainee to successfully recover from repeat EHS and return to duty, and set a framework for future repeat EHS treatment guidelines. Conclusions: In individuals with repeat EHS, a prolonged recovery period followed by heat tolerance testing can be used to demonstrate appropriate thermotolerance and safely clear an individual to begin stepwise reacclimatization. Overall, patient care and military readiness may be improved by unified Department of Defense guidelines for return to duty after EHS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive enhancement platforms have received growing interest as a means to improve workplace performance. Among the many commercial and professional organizations exploring cognitive training, the United States military has begun exploring the potential added value of cognitive enhancement tools. Whereas most platforms offer automated or algorithm-based solutions to support cognitive training, special operations have developed the role of a cognitive coach to support training. The current discussion provides several lessons learned when trying to bridge cognitive systems and enhancement tools within military operations that should apply to any organization seeking to improve cognitive performance among already high-performing personnel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Operation Observant Compass, the United States 2011–2017 military intervention in Central Africa to defeat Joseph Kony’s Lord’s Resistance Army, offers several lessons for students and practitioners of military geography. As opposed to previous humanitarian interventions, Operation Observant Compass featured a notably small force of roughly 100 special operations forces and support personnel. This special operations forces element, deployed to the tri-border region between the Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic, confronted an elusive enemy force in an operational area roughly 200 000 square kilometres in size. Using a mixedmethods approach, the study, on which this this article is based, argued that Operation Observant Compass resulted in a net positive humanitarian outcome despite failing to kill or capture Kony. First, using datasets on Lord’s Resistance Army attacks and Operation Observant Compass troop positions, this article presents a geospatial analysis of potential deterrence effects created by the deployment of special operations forces, such as the United States Special Forces or “Green Berets”. Second, using primary research conducted by the former psychological operations commander of Operation Observant Compass and the Ugandan People’s Defence Force counterpart, analysis is presented on the efficacy of psychological operations campaigns that sought to weaken the Lord’s Resistance Army through defections to regional security forces. The study also considered ancillary effects received through United States military medical personnel deployed in support of special operations forces, as well as a counterfactual argument in which United States forces were not directly deployed into the tri-border region. This article contributes to the existing literature by expanding understanding of a littlestudied chapter in foreign military deployments in sub-Saharan Africa, considering the nexus between use of special operations forces and humanitarian interventions. Methodologically, the use of a geographic information system argues for a consideration of geographical proximity between forces in creating a deterrent effect in “low-intensity” or irregular conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Military Science Review / Hadtudományi Szemle is the property of National University of Public Service and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Exertional heat stroke (EHS) remains a significant health concern while training in hot environments, prompting the development of noninvasive wearable technology for monitoring estimated core temperature (ECT). The objective of this study was to review the effectiveness of an ECT device during elite military training by providing a case series of individuals who developed EHS. This is a retrospective study of EHS cases during high-intensity training while wearing the ECT device, Zephyr BioharnessTM. Data was collected from January 2021 through September 2021 at the Air Force Special Warfare Training pipeline in San Antonio, TX. Rectal temperatures of EHS diagnoses, defined by central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction and rectal temperature approaching or >40°C (104°F), were compared to ECT reading via Zephyr BioharnessTM. Incidence rates and psychometric properties were calculated using R package. A total of 47,058 daily peak ECT measurements were collected among 1,364 trainees. A total of 499 trainees flagged as potential EHS by Zephyr BioharnessTM reading >39.7°C (103.5°F). The incidence of confirmed EHS was 0.8/1000 person-months. Of the 10 confirmed EHS cases (9 males, 1 female; age = 23.4 ± 2.7 yrs; BMI = 25 ± 2; body fat = 13 ± 5%), 8 trainees had a peak ECT reading below 39.7°C which resulted in a sensitivity of 20%, specificity of 98.9%, positive likelihood ratio (LR) of 18.93 (95% Confidence Interval [CI] 5.5–65.6), and a negative LR of 0.81 (95% CI 0.6–1.1). ECT had substantial false positive and negative rates. Further studies are needed to validate this technology in other populations, and the algorithm used in this device needs to be refined to better capture the environmental and physical requirements in the special operations population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of the available sources shows that there are currently many different definitions of the term special operations, some of which contain an element of interpretation ambiguity, and most need to be more fully adequate to the current rules of their conduct. In modern literature, instructions and doctrines, both Englishlanguage and national, one can encounter interchangeably used expressions: special operations, special tasks or special actions. It is because the Polish Special Operation Forces are using documents based on English-language NATO originals, in which the term operation can be freely translated into Polish in at least several ways (actions, operations, operational activities). Therefore, it becomes necessary to put this terminological chaos in order, among other things, by attempting to identify and describe the theory of special operations.

The purpose of the article is to explain the mechanism of forced migration and its impact on the security of the invaded state, using contemporary Poland as an example. In order to introduce the phenomenon of coercive engineered migration, the author cites historical examples of its use by the authorities of totalitarian states, especially the Soviet Union. The main part of the article is devoted to the analysis of various forms of threats to Poland's security generated by Russia and Belarus, and the possibility of escalation of these threats. The analysis of the geopolitical situation shows that the biggest threat to Poland is the migratory pressure caused by the wars in the Middle East, and on the other hand by the creation of a new migration route through the territory of Ukraine. The author was critical of the level of threat recognition, also pointing out the limited possibilities of counteracting both migratory pressure and unfavorable processes on the territory of Ukraine, which will be a consequence of the reduction of aid from the West to this country, as well as the escalation of conflicts in the Islamic region.

In an article published by the author in Insight Turkey, the impact of economic power on international security was discussed with a detailed explanation of the connection between economic and military power. However, there was inadequate discussion of the links between military power and international security. This article aims to explain the impact of military power on international security and how a state can achieve its security objectives by employing military power. In addition to conceptual and theoretical ideas, the analysis contains a discussion of actual examples of the use of military power, especially by Türkiye in recent years, in achieving its international security objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Military Science Review / Hadtudományi Szemle is the property of National University of Public Service and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Thousands of Ethiopians served with the irregular forces which fought alongside the British Empire in East Africa. According to some sources, they were more of a hindrance than a help. To others they were the critical factor that led to the liberation of the country. Understanding what the Ethiopian irregular forces did and whether they were effective is critical for the historiography of the East Africa campaign. If they were as widespread and effective as some sources suggest, then any study of the campaign which neglects them is not only incomplete, but also inaccurate. This article explores the activities of the Ethiopian irregulars and evaluates their effectiveness. By doing so, it not only provides an important historiographic intervention for other studies, but through its use of interviews conducted with Ethiopian veterans it helps to restore the lost voices and experiences of the Ethiopians themselves to the historical narrative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical fitness testing in the military is commonly used to assess whether service members are physically capable of performing the diverse physical tasks that may be required for their job. Body composition can influence an individual's ability to physically perform. This study aimed to analyze the general physical profile of U.S. Air Force (USAF) special warfare candidates by assessing body composition results and physical assessment scores collected over the past four years. Male candidates (n = 1036) were 18.2 years to 39.5 years of age (M = 23.5, SD = 3.9) and weighed 78.8 kg (SD = 8.3) with a BMI of 25.0 (SD = 2.0) at 11.8% body fat (SD = 3.3) as measured using bioelectrical impedance. Body composition and fitness scores were similar to those noted in U.S. Navy special warfare candidates as well as individuals in other elite tactical units. These results highlight the normative body composition profile of individuals assessing for advanced military career fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The metabolomic profiles of Soldiers entering the U.S. Special Forces Assessment and Selection course (SFAS) have not been evaluated. Objectives: To compare pre-SFAS blood metabolomes of Soldiers selected during SFAS versus those not selected, and explore the relationships between the metabolome, physical performance, and diet quality. Methods: Fasted blood samples and food frequency questionnaires were collected from 761 Soldiers prior to entering SFAS to assess metabolomic profiles and diet quality, respectively. Physical performance was assessed throughout SFAS. Results: Between-group differences (False Discovery Rate < 0.05) in 108 metabolites were detected. Selected candidates had higher levels of compounds within xenobiotic, pentose phosphate, and corticosteroid metabolic pathways, while non-selected candidates had higher levels of compounds potentially indicative of oxidative stress (i.e., sphingomyelins, acylcarnitines, glutathione, amino acids). Multiple compounds higher in non-selected versus selected candidates included: 1-carboxyethylphenylalanine; 4-hydroxy-nonenal-glutathione; α-hydroxyisocaproate; hexanoylcarnitine; sphingomyelin and were associated with lower diet quality and worse physical performance. Conclusion: Candidates selected during SFAS had higher pre-SFAS levels of circulating metabolites that were associated with resistance to oxidative stress, higher physical performance and higher diet quality. In contrast, non-selected candidates had higher levels of metabolites potentially indicating elevated oxidative stress. These findings indicate that Soldiers who were selected for continued Special Forces training enter the SFAS course with metabolites associated with healthier diets and better physical performance. Additionally, the non-selected candidates had higher levels of metabolites that may indicate elevated oxidative stress, which could result from poor nutrition, non-functional overreaching/overtraining, or incomplete recovery from previous physical activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When 'The Theory of Special Operations' was written in 1993 by then Commander William H. McRaven, USN, Al Qaeda was barely on the strategic horizon. Nevertheless, this thesis helped shape the denouement of the horrible tragedy that befell the world on 11 September 2001. This article describes McRaven's work and traces its influence on the 2011 Abbottabad Raid. It also identifies how the theory might be modified to better capture the civil-military nexus at the apex of the strategic use of special operations forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (ANAM) has long been used to assess cognition in military samples before deployment and following injury. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of various demographic factors on the ANAM4 Military Expanded (ANAM4 ME) performance of Special Operations Forces (SOF) and to provide regression-based normative data for clinicians working with SOF personnel. Method: The sample was a large active duty military sample of SOF and support personnel (n = 24,072) who were tested under a new baseline policy. Results: Performance differences based on demographic variables were generally small. In general, increasing age was associated with significantly worse performance, except on mathematical processing. Higher education level was associated with better performance on most subtests, as expected, but was associated with worse performance on spatial processing. Conclusion: This paper provides regression formulas for calculating adjusted scores based on the most relevant demographic variables, as well as base rates of obtaining one or more clearly above or below average scores across the entire ANAM4 ME battery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Latent profile analysis provides important insight into PTSD subtypes. • The special forces community is not homogenous and may have district subtypes. • The present study examined PTSD subtypes by job category. • The operator subsample was characterized by profiles similar to the extant literature. • Support personnel profiles were characterized by primarily depressive symptoms. Given the large number and diverse types of PTSD symptoms, examination of subtypes within the comprehensive PTSD criteria is necessary. This is especially true for subpopulations of active-duty service members such as specialized military units that undergo assessment and selection, receive extensive training, and have significant operational experience and trauma exposure. The current study identified PTSD subtypes in 16,284 U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF) personnel who completed the Preservation of the Force and Family Needs Assessment Survey. Results identified a 4-profile solution. When stratifying the sample by occupation type (Operator vs Support), findings suggest that SOF Support personnel symptom presentations are primarily characterized by dysphoric and negative alterations in cognitions and mood symptoms. In contrast, SOF Operator personnel symptoms are best characterized by traditional profiles, consistent with the existing PTSD subtype literature. Results provide support for pursuing precision medicine approaches based on PTSD symptom profiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As NATO drafts its next Strategic Concept, it faces a persistent and more diverse threat from terrorism than when the 2010 Strategic Concept was written. In addition, the Alliance faces greater threats from geopolitical competition, leading to its member states shifting resources away from the fight against terrorism. In drafting of the next Strategic Concept, NATO must continue to prioritize the development of an enduring and sustainable approach to maintain its focus on terrorist threats. This essay argues that a sustainable and enduring approach to fighting terrorism requires NATO to adopt three key tasks (1) improving the Alliance's defensive capabilities, (2) maintaining its ability to respond to crises and (3) focusing on intelligence sharing. In order to ensure this approach is sustainable for the Alliance, NATO must implement these key tasks by focusing on and integrating terrorism within NATO policy and increasing collaboration with allies and multinational partners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special operations community could best address the perceived ethical crisis it faces by professionalizing as an institution. While earlier assessments have attributed special operations forces' ethical issues to a focus on mission accomplishment that led to a broken force generation process and a high operations tempo, such diagnoses obscure a more comprehensive solution. Using sociologist Andrew Abbott's work on professions as a framework, this article explores the benefits of building the kinds of institutions that can claim a jurisdiction, develop and certify expert knowledge, and establish and apply a code of ethics that addresses special operations unique concerns so that it builds trust and better serves the American people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special operations community could best address the perceived ethical crisis it faces by professionalizing as an institution. While earlier assessments have attributed special operations forces' ethical issues to a focus on mission accomplishment that led to a broken force generation process and a high operations tempo, such diagnoses obscure a more comprehensive solution. Using sociologist Andrew Abbott's work on professions as a framework, this article explores the benefits of building the kinds of institutions that can claim a jurisdiction, develop and certify expert knowledge, and establish and apply a code of ethics that addresses special operations unique concerns so that it builds trust and better serves the American people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Although multiple studies have documented the impact of insufficient sleep on soldier performance, most studies have done so using artificial measures of performance (e.g., tablet or simulator tests). The current study sought to test the relationship between sleep and soldier performance during infantry battle drill training, a more naturalistic measure of performance. METHODS: Subjects in the study were 15 junior Special Operations infantry soldiers. Soldiers wore an actigraph and reported their subjective sleep duration and quality prior to close quarter battle (CQB) drills. Experienced leaders monitored each iteration of the CQB exercise and recorded the number of errors committed. RESULTS: The number of errors committed during the live ammunition iterations was negatively correlated with subjective number of hours slept and subjective sleep efficiency/quality during the month prior. Soldiers with subjective sleep duration ≥7 h had a significantly lower number of errors than soldiers with subjective sleep duration <7 h (1.71 vs. 0.63 errors), and soldiers with sleep quality <85% committed more errors than those with sleep quality =85% (1.50 vs. 0.40 errors). DISCUSSION: These data preliminarily suggest that sleep quality and duration may influence subsequent performance on infantry battle drill training, particularly for soldiers with limited experience in battle drill conduction who have not yet perfected battle drill techniques. Future studies should enact sleep augmentation to determine the causal influence of sleep on performance in this setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: In 2018, the Expeditionary Resuscitative Surgical Team 3 (ERST-3) published a retrospective review on the ground casualty evacuation (CASEVAC) options available to a Special Operations Forces (SOF) unit in the Horn of Africa. Seventeen months following their deployment, ERST-7 provided an update on the improvised ground evacuation platforms in the same area of operations and what has and has not worked based on combat experience and new literature. Methods: This publication is an update to a retrospective review of various modes of ground transportation used by ERST-7 during their deployment with Special Operations Command Africa from July 2020 to January 2021. The authors excluded all hand-carried litter and air evacuation platforms. The authors discuss litter setup, necessary modifications, litter capacity, strengths and weaknesses, and any recommendations for a Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicle, a full-size pickup truck, and a mid-size pickup truck based on their use during the ERST-7 deployment. The authors also used previous literature to support their recommendations. Results: The SOF unit to which ERST-7 was assigned still uses two of the four platforms included in the original study. The authors recommend continued use of the MRAP for patient extraction with a solely widthwise patient configuration, weather-proofing the open beds of MRAPs, and outfitting all MRAPs for Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) if the CASEVAC-designated MRAP is disabled. The pickup trucks functioned well for expedient CASEVAC under non-hostile conditions. However, they should be a last resort for CASEVAC outside friendly-controlled areas due to inadequate cover and concealment for patients and medical personnel providing enroute care. Conclusions: Vehicles of opportunity available to SOF personnel are constantly changing. Continuous evaluation of local platforms is crucial, especially for partner force personnel who may not have access to dedicated air and ground MEDEVAC platforms. The authors recommend baseline readiness training on CASEVAC scenarios for those units traveling to areas without MEDEVAC assets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. In Russian historiography, the issue of the reasons for the beginning of the U.S. special operations in Nicaragua is a complex problem that requires careful development due to its importance as one of the elements of the confrontation during the Cold War. The scientific relevance of this issue is determined by the insufficient degree of its study. The socio-political relevance is related to the current military-political situation in the world in general and the actions of the United States in particular, which, as part of ensuring their national security, use special operations to achieve certain goals and objectives. An example of this is the U.S.-led special operation to destroy Osama bin Laden, during which the sovereignty of Pakistan was violated. Another example of U.S. special operations at the present stage is Washington’s support of the “proxy” forces loyal to it in Syria. Special operations conducted by the United States in Nicaragua during the first half of the 80s were in many ways the main tool for achieving U.S. state interests in this country. In this regard, it seems that a detailed consideration of the first attempt in the history of the United States to conduct a global special operation, which began with the program of supporting the anti-Communist forces “Contras” in Nicaragua, which was later funded by the illegal supply of American weapons to Iran, would be useful for the domestic scientific doctrine. Methods and materials. In the course of the research, the historical-comparative method, the method of analysis and synthesis, as well as the system approach are applied. The study uses: 1) a set of unpublished materials on the special activities of the United States in Nicaragua, declassified in connection with the “Iran-Contra” scandal, and contained on the electronic website of the National Security Archive at the George Washington University; 2) published sources related to the Cold War; 3) scientific literature on the problems of U.S. special operations during the cold war; 4) memoir literature. Analysis. This article analyzes the reasons that influenced the decision of the U.S. political leadership to authorize special operations in Nicaragua based on the documents and materials studied in the Iran-Contra Affair. Results. The scientific development of the problems of the U.S. special policy in Nicaragua was observed back in the 80s in the USSR. However, it was conducted in hot pursuit, it was biased, considered a complex set of processes taking place in Central America from the perspective of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, and did not take into account the American position, which made the scientific assessment of these events less complete and justified. New studies of this period take this factor into account, are based on new methods and previously unknown to the scientific community documents and materials that were declassified after the end of the Cold War. Results. In the course of the study, an attempt was made to highlight the mechanism for the development and implementation of U.S. special operations in Nicaragua. The author concludes that the use of the National Security Council personnel for special operations was conditioned by the need to avoid legislative restrictions of the U.S. Congress when implementing U.S. foreign policy in Nicaragua.

Background: Detection of retained foreign bodies (FB) is a difficult task in both austere environments and emergency departments, particularly when they are radiolucent and not detectable by plain radiographs. Failure to identify and remove them can lead to increased morbidity., Objective: To determine the accuracy of Special Forces (SF) medics in detecting wooden FBs in tissue models, using point-of-care ultrasound., Methods: A prospective, single-blinded, observational study using chicken thigh models was performed. Medics with no prior soft-tissue ultrasound experience received a 1-hour lecture on ultrasound, then scanned 10 tissue models for up to 3 minutes each. Participants were blinded to the models: five were free of FBs and five contained a single wooden FB of varying lengths (1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, or 10mm) at a depth of 5mm., Results: Twenty SF medics performed 200 total scans. For the detection of wooden FBs, sensitivity was 71.8% (95% CI 50.7-85.7) and specificity 82.0% (95% CI 61.1-92.6). The 10-mm FB was identified with 95% accuracy and had an overall sensitivity of 95% (95% CI 76.4-99)., Conclusions: SF medics with minimal ultrasound training are capable of accurately identifying soft-tissue wooden FBs with ultrasound. The FB size, orientation, and proximity to fibrous tissues were important factors in accurate identification. SF medics use of ultrasound to aid in the detection of superficial, soft-tissue FBs is an obtainable and valuable skill., Competing Interests: The authors have nothing to disclose., (2024.)

Training needs of Special Operations Forces (SOF) medics were surveyed and new training initiatives have been created to meet their needs. SOF medics perform an array of medical procedures in austere environments with minimal supervision. Medical skills decay over time after initial training and the perceived training needs of active SOF medics were unclear. To fill this gap, active SOF medics (n=57) completed a survey that included confidence ratings and indications of whether additional training would make them more proficient in 70 medical knowledge and procedural skills, assembled into categories by a panel of experts (airway, trauma, neuro, differential diagnosis, administrative, infection, critical care, environmental, other). Data were analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and nonparametric statistics at P<.05. Confidence was highest in the trauma, administrative, and airway categories, and lowest in the infection, differential diagnosis, and neuro categories (P<.05 or less). Categories indicating the greatest need for additional training were environmental and critical care, while those indicating lowest need were the airway and trauma categories (P=.05). Additional training was endorsed by >75% of participants in each category. SOF medics also wanted additional training in all areas, preferably hands-on with live patients in realistic scenarios, taught by experienced medics. Findings highlight the training needs of SOF medics and demonstrate the value of bottom-up feedback toward optimizing sustainment training. Based on present findings, two TACMED (Tactical Medicine) Divisions at the SOF Echelon III level were created to meet the sustainment training needs of SOF medics., Competing Interests: The authors have no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose., (2024.)

Wood, DE and Swain, DP. Influence of body mass on fitness performance in Naval Special Warfare operators. J Strength Cond Res 35(11): 3120–3127, 2021—U.S. Naval Special Operations Forces have performed some of the U.S. Military's most rigorous missions. The Human Performance Program (HPP) developed a physical performance testing battery to assess and monitor physical fitness. Testing bias relative to body mass has been noted in the past literature, including military physical fitness tests. This retrospective study looked to determine whether there is body mass bias in the HPP fitness assessment and whether an optimum body mass for each fitness test could be determined. Data from 333 subjects (age: 28.4 ± 5.0 years; height: 178.4 ± 6.2 cm; mass: 86.0 ± 9.2 kg) were analyzed to compare body mass with performance on the 8 tests: standing long jump, Pro-Agility test, weighted pull-up, body weight bench press, 1 repetition maximum (1RM) deadlift, 274-m shuttle run, 4.83-km run, and 800-m swim. Linear regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship of body mass to performance; a second-degree polynomial was used to determine best-fit curves for each of the physical fitness tests; analysis of variance was used to examine differences in performance between body mass groups. Significantly better performance for lighter subjects was found in the Pro-Agility test, weighted pull-up, body weight bench press, 274-m shuttle run, and 4.83-km run. Heavier subjects performed better in the 1RM deadlift. Second-degree polynomial regression revealed optimum body mass for the Pro-Agility test, 274-m shuttle run, and 4.83-km run to be 7–16 kg heavier than the lowest body mass. These findings could help professionals better assess and train operators of varying body size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

W artykule omówiono tworzenie, organizację i funkcjonowanie formacji wywiadowczych działających na terenie Czechosłowacji w okresie od utworzenia samodzielnego państwa aż do zakończenia II wojny światowej. Przedstawiono zarówno mechanizmy werbowania etatowych funkcjonariuszy i żołnierzy wywiadu jak również współpracowników cywilnych. Ponadto przybliżono metody działań agentów wywiadu a także stosowane modele zarządzania posiadanym kapitałem ludzkim i operacyjnym oraz przykłady konspirowania działań podejmowanych przez wyspecjalizowane komórki wywiadowcze.

The article focuses on the possibility of carrying out subversive actions in eastern Poland in the current geopolitical situation. For this purpose, the authors have explained the essence of the undertakings referred to as subversion and diversionary activities. The concept of a new genera-tion war of the Russian Federation and the establishment of the Russia’s Special Operations Forces have been briefly described. It also discusses pretexts to take sabotage actions in eastern Poland and identifies po-tential targets of these actions. A significant part of the article is devot-ed to the analysis of activities countering subversion on the eastern border of Poland. Moreover, the creation of a new formation, which would take over the tasks related to the protection and defense of the eastern Polish border, has been proposed.

Special operations are the main pattern of recent local wars and future operations. Special operations forces are important new strategic forces around the world to achieve national security goals and implement foreign policy. Military operational medicine focuses on maintaining the physical, intelligent and situational awareness of military personnel, and its ultimate goal is to maintain the physical and mental health of military personnel and enhance the military operational abilities of military personnel. This paper introduces the research status and hotspots of military operational medicine in the field of special operations in recent years, main gaps between our army and foreign troops, and future development trends.

The deployment of special forces in hostile or politically volatile environments in search of strategic/operational intelligence, though not a 21st century novelty, appeared as a distinct military activity in literature only in the early 2000s under the label 'Special Reconnaissance' (SR). This article argues that the concept of SR (a) originated in the biblical Israelite military tradition and is depicted in the Bible as the lapis angularis of military strategy and a practice capable of dictating military and political norms; (b) has been used as a key element of the Israel Defence Forces' (IDF) modus operandi since 1948 thenceforth functioning in an analogous manner. To support these arguments, the theoretical and practical characteristics of Moses' intelligence mission to Canaan as well as the IDF's proclivity to SR are scrutinised under the general theoretical framework of political realism that assumes rational and pro-state interest course of actions. Accordingly, SR emerges as a distinctive common instrument of biblical and contemporary Israeli strategy, a fact that underlines the uninterrupted socio-political and cultural links between the past and the present of the Israeli ontology, this time via the wider concept of the Israeli military ethics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vertical elevation may be critical for advantage to Special Operation Forces and require strength, power, endurance, and technique. This study sought to (a) study differences in physical capacities of Naval Special Warfare lead climbers from nonlead climbers, (b) compare anthropometries of lead climbers from nonlead climbers, and (c) catalogue the types and weights of the various climbing systems to assess total system weight to the lead climber's body mass. Climbing surveys were collected and retrospective physical capacity data from 15 SEa, Air and Land lead climbers (age: 31.2 ± 5.1 years; height: 181.4 ± 6.4 cm; mass: 89.4 ± 10.0 kg; body fat: 14.1 ± 3.7%) were compared against previously reported data of 305 nonlead climbers (age: 28.8 ±5.2 years; height: 177.6 ± 12.0 cm; mass: 85.8 ±9.7 kg; body fat: 17.3 ±4.7%). Lead climbers had significantly less body fat percentage (p = 0.017). Lead climbers also performed significantly better on the pro-agility test (p = 0.017) and deadlift (p = 0.002). The total mass reported for the climbing equipment for each tactical scenario was up to 4.9 kg for urban climbing, up to 13.7 kg for alpine climbing, and up to 8.0 kg for maritime climbing. With a typical combat load of 21.4 kg, adding an alpine climbing load exceeds one-third of the lead climbers' own body mass. Strength and conditioning programming for this population should take into consideration the total system weight for testing and training purposes and should also consider climbing-specific strength testing and training to optimize climbing capability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intention of this paper is to clarify how state patrons control non-state proxy forces fighting on their behalf. In order to address the subject matter thoroughly, specific attention was paid to a number of questions including a) the criteria determining patronproxy relations, b) factors influencing the selection process of proxy forces, and c) principles governing the maximisation of potential benefits of using proxies, whilst simultaneously reducing risks and associated costs. The author applied a neo-realistic research paradigm to his work. Patron-proxy relations were presented in the context of the principal-agent theory, as well as through detailed analysis of ongoing scenarios involving Iran and Hezbollah, Russia and the Donbass separatists, Pakistan and Kashmiri militias, the US and Syrian rebels. The essence of war by proxy is to influence the strategic result of an armed conflict without direct, full-scale, military intervention. The use of non-state proxy, external actors is aimed at maximising their political goals and strategic interests whilst maintaining "plausible deniability". By supporting non-state proxies, indirectly or by providing limited direct assistance, sponsors operate below the threshold of war. Empirical analysis of proxy war cases proves that such models may both guarantee "strategic victory" or become a "double-edged sword". One of the key challenges for external powers engaged in war by proxy is to avoid unintended consequences (blowback). The author argues that elements such as ideology, ethnicity or religion do not necessarily ensure control over proxies, whilst the range of common goals and interests, and the level of the proxy's dependency, are crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans are at increased risk for a variety of mental health problems and cognitive impairment associated with military service. Current treatments are lacking in effectiveness and adherence. Therefore, this study examined psychedelic treatment with ibogaine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine for trauma-related psychological and cognitive impairment among U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans. Method: We conducted a survey of Veterans who completed a specific psychedelic clinical program in Mexico between 2017 and 2019. Questions probed retrospective reports of mental health and cognitive functioning during the 30 days before and 30 days after treatment. A total of 65 people completed treatment during this time frame and were eligible for contact. Of these, 51 (78%) completed the survey and were included in data analyses (mean age = 40; male = 96%; married = 55%; Caucasian/White = 92%; Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom Service = 96%). Results: Results indicated significant and very large reductions in retrospective report of suicidal ideation (p <.001; d = −1.9), cognitive impairment (p <.001; d = −2.8), and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (p <.001; d = −3.6), depression (p <.001; d = −3.7), and anxiety (p <.001; d = −3.1). Results also showed a significant and large increase in retrospective report of psychological flexibility (p <.001; d = 2.9) from before-to-after the psychedelic treatment. Increases in the retrospective report of psychological flexibility were strongly associated with retrospective report of reductions in cognitive impairment, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety (rs range −0.61 to −0.75; p <.001). Additionally, most participants rated the psychedelic experiences as one of the top five personally meaningful (84%), spiritually significant (88%), and psychologically insightful (86%) experiences of their lives. Limitations : Several limitations should be considered including the retrospective, self-report, survey design of the study, and the lack of randomization and blinding, thus making these finding preliminary. Conclusion: U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans may have unique treatment needs because of the sequela of problems associated with repeated trauma exposure and the nature of the exposure. Psychedelic-assisted therapy with these under-researched psychedelics may hold unique promise for this population. However, controlled studies are needed to determine whether this treatment is efficacious in relieving mental health and cognitive impairment among U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]