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Parkinson’s disease is characterized by preferential degeneration of the dopamine-producing neurons of the brain stem substantia nigra. Imbalances between mechanisms governing dopamine transport across the plasma membrane and cellular storage vesicles increase the level of toxic pro-oxidative cytosolic dopamine. The microtubule-stabilizing protein p25α accumulates in dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease. We hypothesized that p25α modulates the subcellular localization of the dopamine transporter via effects on sorting vesicles, and thereby indirectly affects its cellular activity. Here we show that co-expression of the dopamine transporter with p25α in HEK-293-MSR cells increases dopamine uptake via increased plasma membrane presentation of the transporter. No direct interaction between p25α and the dopamine transporter was demonstrated, but they co-fractionated during subcellular fractionation of brain tissue from striatum, and direct binding of p25α peptides to brain vesicles was demonstrated. Truncations of the p25α peptide revealed that the requirement for stimulating dopamine uptake is located in the central core and were similar to those required for vesicle binding. Co-expression of p25α and the dopamine transporter in HEK-293-MSR cells sensitized them to the toxicity of extracellular dopamine. Neuronal expression of p25α thus holds the potential to sensitize the cells toward dopamine and toxins carried by the dopamine transporter. Structured digital abstract • MINT-8055798: DAT (uniprotkb:Q01959) and p25 alpha (uniprotkb:O94811) colocalize (MI:0403) by fluorescence microscopy (MI:0416) • MINT-8054201: p25 alpha (uniprotkb:B1Q0K1), bip (refseq:GI:194033595), Synaptophysin (uniprotkb:Q62277), Alpha-synuclein (uniprotkb:Q3I5G7) and DAT (uniprotkb:C6KE31) colocalize (MI:0403) by cosedimentation in solution (MI:0028) • MINT-8055878: Synaptophysin (uniprotkb:Q62277), bip (refseq:GI:194033595) and p25-alpha (uniprotkb:O94811) colocalize (MI:0403) by cosedimentation through density gradient (MI:0029)

Aquaporin-3 (AQP3) and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) are homologous proteins expressed in the basolateral plasma membrane of kidney collecting duct principal cells, where they mediate the exit pathway for apically reabsorbed water. Although both proteins are localized to the same plasma membrane domain, it is unknown if they are sorted together in the Golgi, or arrive in the same or different vesicles at the plasma membrane. We addressed these questions using high resolution deconvolution imaging, spinning disk and laser scanning confocal microscopy of cells expressing AQP3 and AQP4. AQP3 and AQP4 were observed mostly in separate post-Golgi carriers, and spinning disk microscopy showed that most of AQP3 and AQP4 were delivered to the plasma membrane in separate vesicles. In contrast, VSV-G and LDL-R, two well-charcterized basolateral proteins, co-localized to a high degree in the same post-Golgi carriers, indicating that the differential sorting of AQP3 and AQP4 is specific and regulated. Significantly, a chimeric AQP3 containing the AQP4 cytoplasmic tails co-localized with AQP4 in post-Golgi vesicles. These results indicate that AQP3 and AQP4 are separated into different post-Golgi carriers based on different cytoplasmic domain sorting signals, and are then delivered separately to the plasma membrane. Aquaporin-3 (AQP3) and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) are homologous proteins expressed in the basolateral plasma membrane of kidney collecting duct principal cells, where they mediate the exit pathway for apically reabsorbed water. Although both proteins are localized to the same plasma membrane domain, it is unknown if they are sorted together in the Golgi, or arrive in the same or different vesicles at the plasma membrane. We addressed these questions using high resolution deconvolution imaging, spinning disk and laser scanning confocal microscopy of cells expressing AQP3 and AQP4. AQP3 and AQP4 were observed mostly in separate post-Golgi carriers, and spinning disk microscopy showed that most of AQP3 and AQP4 were delivered to the plasma membrane in separate vesicles. In contrast, VSV-G and LDL-R, two well-charcterized basolateral proteins, co-localized to a high degree in the same post-Golgi carriers, indicating that the differential sorting of AQP3 and AQP4 is specific and regulated. Significantly, a chimeric AQP3 containing the AQP4 cytoplasmic tails co-localized with AQP4 in post-Golgi vesicles. These results indicate that AQP3 and AQP4 are separated into different post-Golgi carriers based on different cytoplasmic domain sorting signals, and are then delivered separately to the plasma membrane.

The 219-residue protein p25α stimulates the fibrillation of α-synuclein (αSN) in vitro and colocalizes with it in several α-synucleinopathies. Although p25α does not fibrillate by itself under native conditions in vitro, αSN-free p25α aggregates have also been observed in vivo in, for example, multiple system atrophy. To investigate which environmental conditions might trigger this aggregation, we investigated the effect of polyanionic biomolecules on p25α aggregation. Heparin, polyglutamate, arachidonic acid micelles, and RNA all induce p25α aggregation. More detailed studies using heparin as template for aggregation reveal that a minimum of 10-14 heparin monosaccharide units per heparin polymer are required. Bona fide fibrils are only formed at intermediate heparin concentrations, possibly because an excess of heparin binding sites blocks the inter-p25α contacts required for amyloid formation. Other polyanions also show an optimum for amyloid formation. Aggregation involves only modest structural changes according to both spectroscopic and proteolytic experiments. The aggregates do not seed aggregation of heparin-free p25α, suggesting that heparin is required in stoichiometric amounts to form organized structures. We are able to reproduce these observations in a model involving two levels of binding of p25α to heparin. We conclude that the modest structural changes that p25α undergoes can promote weak intermolecular contacts and that polyanions such as heparin play a central role in stabilizing these aggregates but in multiple ways, leading to different types of aggregates. This highlights the role of non-protein components in promoting protein aggregation in vivo.

Parkinson's disease is characterized by preferential degeneration of the dopamine-producing neurons of the brain stem substantia nigra. Imbalances between mechanisms governing dopamine transport across the plasma membrane and cellular storage vesicles increase the level of toxic pro-oxidative cytosolic dopamine. The microtubule-stabilizing protein p25α accumulates in dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease. We hypothesized that p25α modulates the subcellular localization of the dopamine transporter via effects on sorting vesicles, and thereby indirectly affects its cellular activity. Here we show that co-expression of the dopamine transporter with p25α in HEK-293-MSR cells increases dopamine uptake via increased plasma membrane presentation of the transporter. No direct interaction between p25α and the dopamine transporter was demonstrated, but they co-fractionated during subcellular fractionation of brain tissue from striatum, and direct binding of p25α peptides to brain vesicles was demonstrated. Truncations of the p25α peptide revealed that the requirement for stimulating dopamine uptake is located in the central core and were similar to those required for vesicle binding. Co-expression of p25α and the dopamine transporter in HEK-293-MSR cells sensitized them to the toxicity of extracellular dopamine. Neuronal expression of p25α thus holds the potential to sensitize the cells toward dopamine and toxins carried by the dopamine transporter.

P25α is a protein normally expressed in oligodendrocytes and subcellular relocalization of p25α occurs in multiple system atrophy, Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia along with ectopic expression in neurons. Moreover, it accumulates in Lewy body inclusions with aggregated α-synuclein and is a potent stimulator of α-synuclein aggregation. P25α is a phosphoprotein and post-transla- tional modifications (PTMs) may play a role in its disease- related abnormalities. To investigate the spectrum of PTMs on p25α we cloned porcine p25α and isolated the protein from porcine brain. Using several complementary tandem mass spectrometry techniques for peptide mass analysis and amino acid sequencing, a comprehensive analysis of the PTMs on porcine p25α was performed. It was found that porcine p25α is heavily modified with a variety of modifications: phosphorylation, di- and trimethylation, citrullination and a HexNAc group. The modifications are localized within p25α's unfolded terminal domains and suggest that their functional states are regulated. This comprehensive mapping of p25α's PTMs will form the basis for future functional studies and investigations of p25α's potential role as a biomarker. © 2008 International Society for Neurochemistry.