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Processes regulating the rate of oxygen depletion determine whether hypoxia occurs and the extent to which greenhouse gases accumulate in seasonally ice-covered lakes. Here, we investigate the oxygen budget of four arctic lakes using high-frequency data during two winters in three shallow lakes (9–13 m maximal depth) and four winters in 24 m deep main basin of Toolik Lake. Incubation experiments measured sediment metabolism. Volume-averaged oxygen depletion measured in situ was independent of water temperature and duration of the ice-covered period. Average rates were between 0.2 and 0.39 g O2 m−2 d−1 in the shallow lakes and between 0.03 and 0.14 g O2 m−2 d−1 in Toolik Lake, with higher rates in smaller lakes with their larger sediment area to volume ratio. Rates decreased to ~ 20%–50% of initial values in late winter in the shallow lakes but less or not at all in Toolik. The lack of a decline in Toolik Lake points to continued oxygen transport to the sediment–water interface where oxygen consumption occurs. In all lakes, lower in situ oxygen depletion than in incubation measurements points toward increasing anoxia in the lower water column depressing loss rates. In Toolik, oxygen loss during early winter was less in years with minimal snow cover. Penetrative convection occurred, which could mix downwards oxygen produced by photosynthesis or excluded during ice formation. Estimates of these terms exceeded photosynthesis measured in sediment incubations. Modeling under ice-oxygen dynamics requires consideration of optical properties and biological and transport processes that modify oxygen concentrations and distributions.

Drivers of phytoplankton and zooplankton dynamics vary spatially and temporally in estuaries due to variation in hydrodynamic exchange and residence time, complicating efforts to understand controls on food web productivity. We conducted approximately monthly (2012–2019; n = 74) longitudinal sampling at 10 fixed stations along a freshwater tidal terminal channel in the San Francisco Estuary, California, characterized by seaward to landward gradients in water residence time, turbidity, nutrient concentrations, and plankton community composition. We used multivariate autoregressive state space (MARSS) models to quantify environmental (abiotic) and biotic controls on phytoplankton and mesozooplankton biomass. The importance of specific abiotic drivers (e.g., water temperature, turbidity, nutrients) and trophic interactions differed significantly among hydrodynamic exchange zones with different mean residence times. Abiotic drivers explained more variation in phytoplankton and zooplankton dynamics than a model including only trophic interactions, but individual phytoplankton–zooplankton interactions explained more variation than individual abiotic drivers. Interactions between zooplankton and phytoplankton were strongest in landward reaches with the longest residence times and the highest zooplankton biomass. Interactions between cryptophytes and both copepods and cladocerans were stronger than interactions between bacillariophytes (diatoms) and zooplankton taxa, despite contributing less biovolume in all but the most landward reaches. Our results demonstrate that trophic interactions and their relative strengths vary in a hydrodynamic context, contributing to food web heterogeneity within estuaries at spatial scales smaller than the freshwater to marine transition.

Estuaries are among the most productive of aquatic ecosystems. Yet the collective understanding of patterns and drivers of primary production in estuaries is incomplete, in part due to complex hydrodynamics and multiple controlling factors that vary at a range of temporal and spatial scales. A whole-ecosystem experiment was conducted in a deep, pelagically dominated terminal channel of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (California, USA) that seasonally appears to become nitrogen limited, to test whether adding calcium nitrate would stimulate primary productivity or increase phytoplankton density. Production did not respond consistently to fertilization, in part because nitrate and phytoplankton were dispersed away from the manipulated area within 1–3 days. Temporal and spatial patterns of gross primary production were more strongly related to stratification and light availability (i.e., turbidity) than nitrogen, highlighting the role of hydrodynamics in regulating system production. Similarly, chlorophyll was positively related not only to stratification but also to nitrogen—with a positive interaction—suggesting stratification may trigger nutrient limitation. The average rate of primary production (4.3 g O2 m−2 d−1), metabolic N demand (0.023 mg N L−1 d−1), and ambient dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentration (0.03 mg N L−1) indicate that nitrogen can become limiting in time and space, especially during episodic stratification events when phytoplankton are isolated within the photic zone, or farther upstream where water clarity increases, dispersive flux decreases, and stratification is stronger and more frequent. The role of hydrodynamics in organizing habitat connectivity and regulating physical and chemical processes at multiple temporal and spatial scales is critical for determining resource availability and evaluating biogeochemical processes in estuaries.

Ponds are often identified by their small size and shallow depths, but the lack of a universal evidence-based definition hampers science and weakens legal protection. Here, we compile existing pond definitions, compare ecosystem metrics (e.g., metabolism, nutrient concentrations, and gas fluxes) among ponds, wetlands, and lakes, and propose an evidence-based pond definition. Compiled definitions often mentioned surface area and depth, but were largely qualitative and variable. Government legislation rarely defined ponds, despite commonly using the term. Ponds, as defined in published studies, varied in origin and hydroperiod and were often distinct from lakes and wetlands in water chemistry. We also compared how ecosystem metrics related to three variables often seen in waterbody definitions: waterbody size, maximum depth, and emergent vegetation cover. Most ecosystem metrics (e.g., water chemistry, gas fluxes, and metabolism) exhibited nonlinear relationships with these variables, with average threshold changes at 3.7 ± 1.8 ha (median: 1.5 ha) in surface area, 5.8 ± 2.5 m (median: 5.2 m) in depth, and 13.4 ± 6.3% (median: 8.2%) emergent vegetation cover. We use this evidence and prior definitions to define ponds as waterbodies that are small (

Ecosystem metabolism is a key ecological attribute and easy to describe, but quantifying metabolism in estuaries is challenging. Properly scaling measurements through time and space requires consideration of hydrodynamics and mixing water from heterogeneous sources, making any estimation uncertain. Here, we compared three methods for modeling ecosystem metabolism in a portion of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Metabolism estimates based on laboratory incubations, continuous in situ buoys, and an oxygen isotope approach all indicated the system was net heterotrophic, and calculated rates were comparable in magnitude when averaged over the 2-month study. Daily metabolic rates based on in situ buoys were the most variable, likely due to horizontal and vertical advection and poor portrayal of the dissolved oxygen budget. After temporally averaging in situ buoy estimates or smoothing the dissolved oxygen time series for tidal effects, rates were more comparable to the other methods, which may be necessary to account for tidal advection and unbalanced contributions from subhabitats within the metabolic footprint. Incubation-based rates represent the finest temporal and spatial scale and only account for pelagic processes, which may explain why incubation-based rates were lower than the other two methods. The oxygen isotope method provided temporally and spatially integrated rates that were bracketed by the other two methods and may be a valuable tool in systems matching the model requirements. Because uncertainty arises in each method from a number of assumptions and scaling calculations, the resolution of metabolic rates in estuaries is likely coarser and more variable than in other aquatic ecosystems.

Warming winters will reduce ice cover and change under-ice conditions in temperate mountain lakes, where snow contributes most of winter cover on lakes. Snow-dominated mountain lakes are abundant and highly susceptible to climate warming, yet we lack an understanding of how climate variation and local attributes influence winter processes. We investigated climatic and intrinsic controls on ice phenology, water temperature, and bottom-water dissolved oxygen (DO) in 15 morphologically diverse lakes in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains of California, USA, using high-frequency measurements from multiple (2–5) winters. We found that ice phenology was determined by winter climate variables (snowfall and air temperature) that influence ice-off timing, whereas ice-on timing was relatively invariant among years. Lake size and morphology mediated the effect of climate on lake temperature and DO dynamics in early and late winter. Rates of hypolimnetic DO decline were highest in small, shallow lakes, and were unrelated to water temperature. Temperature and oxygen dynamics were more variable in small lakes because heavy snowfall caused ice submergence, mixing, and DO replenishment that affected the entire water column. As the persistence of snow declines in temperate mountain regions, autumn, and spring climatic conditions are expected to gain importance in regulating lake ice phenology. Water temperature and DO will likely increase in most lakes during winter as snowpack declines, but morphological attributes such as lake size will determine the sensitivity of ice phenology and under-ice processes to climate change.

Wildfire smoke often covers areas larger than the burned area, yet the impacts of smoke on nearby aquatic ecosystems are understudied. In the summer of 2018, wildfire smoke covered Castle Lake (California, USA) for 55 days. We quantified the influence of smoke on the lake by comparing the physics, chemistry, productivity, and animal ecology in the prior four years (2014-2017) to the smoke year (2018). Smoke reduced incident ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation by 31% and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) by 11%. Similarly, underwater UV-B and PAR decreased by 65 and 44%, respectively, and lake heat content decreased by 7%. While the nutrient limitation of primary production did not change, shallow production in the offshore habitat increased by 109%, likely due to a release from photoinhibition. In contrast, deep-water, primary production decreased and the deep-water peak in chlorophyll a did not develop, likely due to reduced PAR. Despite the structural changes in primary production, light, and temperature, we observed little significant change in zooplankton biomass, community composition, or migration pattern. Trout were absent from the littoral-benthic habitat during the smoke period. The duration and intensity of smoke influences light regimes, heat content, and productivity, with differing responses to consumers.

Globally, lake surface water temperatures have warmed rapidly relative to air temperatures, but changes in deepwater temperatures and vertical thermal structure are still largely unknown. We have compiled the most comprehensive data set to date of long-term (1970-2009) summertime vertical temperature profiles in lakes across the world to examine trends and drivers of whole-lake vertical thermal structure. We found significant increases in surface water temperatures across lakes at an average rate of + 0.37 °C decade-1, comparable to changes reported previously for other lakes, and similarly consistent trends of increasing water column stability (+ 0.08 kg m-3 decade-1). In contrast, however, deepwater temperature trends showed little change on average (+ 0.06 °C decade-1), but had high variability across lakes, with trends in individual lakes ranging from - 0.68 °C decade-1 to + 0.65 °C decade-1. The variability in deepwater temperature trends was not explained by trends in either surface water temperatures or thermal stability within lakes, and only 8.4% was explained by lake thermal region or local lake characteristics in a random forest analysis. These findings suggest that external drivers beyond our tested lake characteristics are important in explaining long-term trends in thermal structure, such as local to regional climate patterns or additional external anthropogenic influences.

Few coupled lake-watershed studies examine long-term effects of climate on the ecosystem function of lakes in a hydrological context. We use 32 years of hydrological and biogeochemical data from a high-elevation site in the Sierra Nevada of California to characterize variation in snowmelt in relation to climate variability and explore the impact on factors affecting phytoplankton biomass. The magnitude of accumulated winter snow, quantified through basinwide estimates of snow water equivalent (SWE), was the most important climate factor controlling variation in the timing and rate of spring snowmelt. Variations in SWE and snowmelt led to significant differences in lake flushing rate, water temperature, and nitrate concentrations across years. On average in dry years, snowmelt started 25 days earlier and proceeded 7 mm/day slower, and the lake began the ice-free season with nitrate concentrations ~2 μM higher and water temperatures 9°C warmer than in wet years. Flushing rates in wet years were 2.5 times larger than those in dry years. Consequently, particulate organic matter concentrations, a proxy for phytoplankton biomass, were 5–6 μM higher in dry years. There was a temporal trend of increase in particulate organic matter across dry years that corresponded to lake warming independent of variation in SWE. These results suggest that phytoplankton biomass is increasing as a result of both interannual variability in precipitation and long-term warming trends. Our study underscores the need to account for local-scale catchment variability that may affect the accumulation of winter snowpack when predicting climate responses in lakes.

Citizen science projects have a long history in ecological studies. The research usefulness of such projects is dependent on applying simple and standardized methods. Here, we conducted a citizen science project that involved more than 3500 Swedish high school students to examine the temperature difference between surface water and the overlying air (Tw-Ta) as a proxy for sensible heat flux (QH). If QH is directed upward, corresponding to positive Tw-Ta, it can enhance CO2 and CH4 emissions from inland waters, thereby contributing to increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The students found mostly negative Tw-Ta across small ponds, lakes, streams/rivers and the sea shore (i.e. downward QH), with Tw-Ta becoming increasingly negative with increasing Ta. Further examination of Tw-Ta using high-frequency temperature data from inland waters across the globe confirmed that Tw-Ta is linearly related to Ta. Using the longest available high-frequency temperature time series from Lake Erken, Sweden, we found a rapid increase in the occasions of negative Tw-Ta with increasing annual mean Ta since 1989. From these results, we can expect that ongoing and projected global warming will result in increasingly negative Tw-Ta, thereby reducing CO2 and CH4 transfer velocities from inland waters into the atmosphere.

We compared the efficacy of stable carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen isotope ratios in identifying the resources used by insect consumers in headwater streams of southern California. We also compared gut contents with consumer stable isotope ratios and mixing model estimates of resource contributions to predator diet. Stable hydrogen isotope ratios (as [[delta].sup.2]H) of algivores were well separated from ratios for detritivores, whereas relationships between stable carbon (as [[delta].sup.13]H) and nitrogen (as [[delta].sup.15]N) ratios of consumers and their expected diets were weaker and more ambiguous. [[delta].sup.2]H values of primary consumers more strongly reflected the proportions of their gut contents consisting of algae than [[delta].sup.13]H values. The proportions of algivorous prey in predator gut contents increased with mixing model estimates of algivore contributions to predator diet using [[delta].sup.2]H but not [[delta].sup.13]H values. Our findings support the use of hydrogen isotope ratios in food web studies of streams in southern California and their potential use in assessing the effects of anthropogenic and natural disturbance on basal resource contributions to food webs that might not otherwise be identified using carbon isotope ratios. Nous avons compare l'efficacite des isotopes stables de carbone, d'hydrogene et d'azote pour cerner les ressources utilisees par des consommateurs d'insectes dans des cours d'eau d'amont du sud de la Californie. Nous avons egalement compare les contenus stomacaux aux rapports d'isotopes stables de consommateurs et a des estimations obtenues de modeles de melange des contributions de ressources au regime alimentaire de predateurs. Les rapports d'isotopes stables d'hydrogene ([[delta].sup.2]H) d'alguivores etaient bien distincts des rapports de detritivores, alors que les relations entre les rapports d'isotopes stables de carbone ([[delta].sup.13]H) et d'azote ([[delta].sup.15]N) de consommateurs et leurs regimes alimentaires attendus etaient plus faibles et plus ambigues. Les valeurs de [[delta].sup.2]H de consommateurs primaires refletaient plus fortement les proportions d'algues de leurs contenus stomacaux que les valeurs de [[delta].sup.13]H. Les proportions de proies alguivores dans les contenus stomacaux de predateurs augmentaient parallelement aux estimations des modeles de melange de la contribution d'alguivores au regime alimentaire de predateurs obtenues en utilisant les valeurs de [[delta].sup.2]H, mais non les valeurs de [[delta].sup.13]H. Nos constatations appuient l'utilisation des rapports d'isotopes d'hydrogene dans les etudes des reseaux trophiques dans des cours d'eau du sud de la Californie et leur utilite potentielle pour evaluer les effets de perturbations humaines et naturelles sur les contributions de ressources de base aux reseaux trophiques que les rapports d'isotopes de carbone pourraient ne pas faire ressortir. [Traduit par la Redaction], Introduction Terrestrial organic matter and stream algae are recognized as the two most important sources of primary production fueling stream food webs (Cummins 1974; Finlay 2001; Doucett et al. 2007; [...]

Lakes are connected to surrounding terrestrial habitats by reciprocal flows of energy and nutrients. We synthesize data from California's mountain lake catchments to investigate how these reciprocal subsidies change along an elevational gradient and with the introduction of a top aquatic predator. At lower elevations, well-developed terrestrial vegetation provides relatively large inputs of organic material to lakes, whereas at higher elevations, the paucity of terrestrial vegetation provides minimal organic input but allows for higher inputs of inorganic nitrogen. There are also pronounced elevational patterns in amphibians and aquatic insects, which represent important vectors for resource flows from lakes back to land. The introduction of trout can reduce this lake-to-land resource transfer, as trout consume amphibians and aquatic insects. We propose a conceptual model in which within-lake processes influence terrestrial consumers at higher elevations, while terrestrial inputs govern within-lake processes at lower elevations. This model contributes to a more general understanding of the connections between aquatic and terrestrial habitats in complex landscapes. Les lacs sont relies aux habitats terrestres qui les entourent par des flux reciproques d'energie et de nutriments. Nous mettons en rapport des donnees tirees de bassins versants de lacs de montagne en Californie pour etudier les variations de ces apports reciproques le long d'un gradient altitudinal et apres l'introduction d'un predateur aquatique de niveau trophique superieur. A basse altitude, une vegetation terrestre bien developpee fournit de relativement grands apports de matiere organique aux lacs, alors qu'a plus haute altitude, la rarete de la vegetation terrestre fournit peu d'apports organiques, mais permet des apports d'azote inorganique plus importants. Des variations altitudinales marquees sont egalement observees chez les amphibiens et les insectes aquatiques, qui representent d'importants vecteurs pour les flux de ressources des lacs vers la terre. L'introduction de truites peut reduire ce transfert de ressources des lacs vers la terre, puisque les truites consomment des amphibiens et des insectes aquatiques. Nous proposons un modele conceptuel dans lequel les processus internes des lacs influencent les consommateurs terrestres a plus haute altitude, alors que les apports terrestres regissent les processus internes des lacs de plus basse altitude. Ce modele participe a une comprehension plus generale des liens entre les habitats aquatiques et terrestres dans des paysages complexes. [Traduit par la Redaction], Introduction The transport of energy and resources across habitat boundaries has important consequences for food-web dynamics and ecosystem function (Polis et al. 1997, 2004; Loreau et al. 2003; Richardson and [...]

Many marine invertebrates with complex life cycles produce planktonic larvae that experience environmental conditions different from those encountered by adults. Factors such as temperature and food, known to impact the larval period, can also affect larval size and consequently the size of newly settled juveniles. After documenting natural variation in the size of cyprids (the final larval stage) of the barnacle Balanus glandula, we experimentally manipulated temperature and food given to larvae to produce cyprids of differing sizes but within the size range of cyprids found in the field. In a set of trials in which larvae of B. glandula were raised on full or reduced rations in the laboratory and subsequently outplanted into the field as newly metamorphosed juveniles, we explored the effects of larval nutrition and size on juvenile performance. Larvae that received full rations throughout their feeding period produced larger cyprids (with more lipid and protein). These larger cyprids grew faster as juveniles and sometimes survived better in the field than juveniles from larvae that had their food ration reduced in the last feeding instar. For naturally settling barnacles brought into the laboratory within 2 days of settlement and fed, we found that initial juvenile size was a good predictor of juvenile size even after 2 weeks of growth. By manipulating food given to juveniles that were derived from larvae fed either full or reduced rations, we found that larval nutritional effects persisted in juveniles for 2-3 times the period that larvae experienced altered food rations.