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Outbreaks of African swine fever virus (ASFv) and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDv) have revealed the susceptibility of livestock to disease transmitted through feed. Several viruses, including PEDv, survive in feed and may introduce disease that causes significant morbidity and mortality. In 2013, PEDv, which causes severe diarrhea and vomiting, reached North America after spreading for decades across Eurasia. The global exchange of ingredients has created demand for products that prevent disease transmission from feed. Formaldehyde-based products are highly effective at inactivating enveloped viruses when applied at 3.25 kg/t. Alternative products to formaldehyde, including carboxylic acids, essential oils, and medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs), have exhibited mixed efficacy against PEDv and require application rates higher than formaldehyde. Amphiphilic molecules like MCFAs disrupt the bilayer-lipid membranes that protect viral nucleic acids through the formation of micelles. Monoglycerides form micelles at lower concentrations than MCFAs, which suggests they may be more potent against enveloped viruses. The potential efficacy of monoglycerides against enveloped viruses in feed led to the development and examination of an experimental monoglyceride blend. The proprietary monoglyceride blend significantly (p

Enterococci are ubiquitous microorganisms having diverse ecological niches but most prominently in gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. Production of enterocins makes them a good probiotic candidate. However, their role as probiotics has become ambiguous in the last few years because of the presence of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes. These virulence traits are known to be transferred genetically, which makes them opportunistic pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract leading to serious concerns about their being used as probiotics. In the present study, Enterococcusspp. isolated from the human gut were subjected to Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) to determine the presence of resistance and virulence genes. Four human origins Enterococcus spp. including Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus casseliflavus, and two Enterococcus gallinarum were isolated from human fecal samples and further cultured on blood agar. Sanger sequencing was done using Applied Biosystems 3730xl DNA Analyzer. These strains were further subjected to WGS using oxford nanopore technology MinION. Raw data were analyzed using the free online tool epi2me. The Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD) and RAST (Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology) software were used to look for the presence of antibiotic resistance genes in these strains. Resistance determinants for clinically important antibiotics (vancomycin) and functional virulence factor genes were detected. G-view server was used for comparative genomics of all strains. The genomic sequencing of Enterococcus suggested that E. faecalis, E. casseliflavus, and E. gallinarum strains are opportunistic pathogens, having antibiotic resistance genes. All isolates had vancomycin resistance genes, which were expressed phenotypically. Genes related to bacteriocin resistance were also present in E. casseliflavus and E. gallinarum.

Turkey reoviruses have been implicated in multiple disease syndromes resulting in significant economic losses to the turkey industry. It has been known for decades that turkey enteric reovirus (TERV) is involved in poult enteritis complex, but turkey arthritis reovirus (TARV), the causative agent of tenosynovitis in turkeys, emerged in 2011. In 2019, we isolated reovirus from several cases of hepatitis in turkeys and tentatively named it turkey hepatitis reovirus (THRV). The comparative pathogenesis of these viruses, and correlation with their genetic make-up (if any), is not known. In this study, we inoculated nine groups of 1-week-old turkey poults with two THRV, five TARV and two TERV via oral route. A tenth group served as a negative control. A subset of birds from each group was euthanised at 3, 5, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post-inoculation (dpi). Tissues were collected for histology and real-time RT-PCR. All nine viruses were found to be enterotropic; the virus gene copy number in the intestine reached a peak at 5 dpi followed by a sharp decline at 7 dpi. All viruses caused a significant decline in body weight gain of birds as compared to the negative control group. Both TARV and THRV strains replicated in tendons and produced histologic lesions consistent with tenosynovitis. Hepatic lesions were produced by THRV only and the virus was re-isolated from liver and spleen of inoculated birds fulfilling Koch's postulates. The results of this study should be helpful in facilitating diagnosis and designing future mitigation plans.

We studied the efficacy of cold atmospheric-pressure plasma (CAP), generated by a two-dimensional array of integrated, coaxial, microhollow, dielectric barrier discharge plasma, against Salmonella ...

Cervidpoxvirus is one of the more recently designated genera within the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, with Deerpox virus (DPV) as the only recognized species to date. In this study, the authors describe spontaneous disease and infection in the North American moose ( Alces americanus) by a novel Cervidpoxvirus, here named Moosepox virus (MPV). Three 4-month-old moose calves developed a multifocal subacute-to-chronic, necrotizing, suppurative-to-granulomatous dermatitis that affected the face and the extremities. Ultrastructurally, all stages of MPV morphogenesis—that is, crescents, spherical immature particles, mature particles, and enveloped mature virus—were observed in skin tissue. In vitro infection with MPV confirmed that its morphogenesis was similar to that of the prototype vaccinia virus. The entire coding region, including 170 putative genes of this MPV, was sequenced and annotated. The sequence length was 164,258 bp with 98.5% nucleotide identity with DPV (strain W-1170-84) based on the whole genome. The genome of the study virus was distinct from that of the reference strain (W-1170-84) in certain genes, including the CD30-like protein (83.9% nucleotide, 81.6% amino acid), the endothelin precursor (73.2% nucleotide including some indels, 51.4% amino acid), and major histocompatibility class (MHC) class I–like protein (81.0% nucleotide, 68.2% amino acid). This study provides biological characterization of a new Cervidpoxvirus attained through in vivo and in vitro ultrastructural analyses. It also demonstrates the importance of whole-genome sequencing in the molecular characterization of poxviruses identified in taxonomically related hosts.

An experimental study was conducted to determine the comparative pathogenicity of type-2 turkey astrovirus (TAstV-2) obtained from turkey flocks afflicted with poult enteritis syndrome (PES) and from turkey flocks displaying no apparent signs of infection. In total, ninety 7-d-old poults, which tested negative for the presence of astrovirus, rotavirus, coronavirus, and reovirus by reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR, were divided evenly into 3 groups: A, B, and C. Birds in group A were inoculated orally with turkey astrovirus-positive intestinal contents from birds affected with PES. Group B received turkey astrovirus-containing intestinal contents from apparently healthy flocks. Group C served as a negative control and was given PBS. Clinical signs of diarrhea, depression, and dullness were observed in group A. Birds in group B also showed clinical signs similar to those in group A, although the signs were milder in nature. Birds in group C did not show any clinical signs. At 16 d postinoculation, the BW of birds in group A was significantly lower than that of birds in groups B or C. In addition, the bursa size was reduced in group A, but not in groups B or C. Birds in groups A and B, but not in group C, were found to shed turkey astrovirus in their feces, as detected by RT-PCR. These results provide a preliminary indication that TAstV-2 from PES birds may be more pathogenic than TAstV-2 from apparently healthy poults. Further studies are needed to determine if pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains of TAstV-2 exist in the environment. These results also reinforce our previous observations that astrovirus is involved in PES, causing significant retardation in growth and weight gain.

Turkey arthritis reovirus (TARV) has been established as a cause of lameness in meat type turkeys in the past decade. However, no information is available on the age susceptibility of TARV or its transmission dynamics. We conducted this study to determine the age at which turkey poults are susceptible to TARV infection and whether infected birds can horizontally transmit the virus to their non-infected pen mates (sentinels). Five groups of turkeys were orally inoculated with TARV (∼10

The COVID−19 pandemic presents a unique challenge to the healthcare community due to the high infectivity rate and need for effective personal protective equipment. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have shown promising antimicrobial properties and are recognized as a safe additive in many food and cosmetic products. This work presents a novel nanocomposite synthesis approach, which allows zinc oxide nanoparticles to be grown within textile and face mask materials, including melt-blown polypropylene and nylon-cotton. The resulting nanocomposite achieves greater than 3 log 10 reduction (≥ 99.9%) in coronavirus titer within a contact time of 10 minutes, by disintegrating the viral envelope. The new nanocomposite textile retains activity even after 100 laundry cycles and has been dermatologist tested as non-irritant and hypoallergenic. Various face mask designs were tested to improve filtration efficiency and breathability while offering antiviral protection, with Claros’ design reporting higher filtration efficiency than surgical masks (> 50%) for particles ranged 200nm to 5µm in size.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) can infect approximately 250 avian species and causes highly contagious Newcastle disease (ND) in domestic poultry, leading to huge economic losses. There are three different pathotypes of NDV, i.e., lentogenic, mesogenic, and velogenic. Wild resident (wild) and migratory birds are natural reservoirs of NDV and are believed to play a key role in transmitting the virus to domestic poultry. The present study was conducted to determine the prevalence of NDV in wild and migratory birds in the state of Haryana, India, during two migratory seasons (2018-19 and 2019-20). In total 1379 samples (1368 choanal swabs and 11 tissue samples) were collected from live (in/i= 1368) or dead birds (in/i= 4) belonging to 53 different avian species. These samples belonged to apparently healthy (in/i= 1338), sick (in/i= 30), and dead (in/i= 4) birds. All samples were tested for NDV by real-time reverse transcription-PCR using M gene specific primers and probe. Of the 1379 samples, 23 samples from wild birds [iColumba livia domestica/i(in/i= 12, 52.17%),iPavo cristatus/i(in/i= 9, 39.13%), andiPsittaciformes/i(in/i= 2, 8.69%)] were found positive for NDV. Only one of the 23 samples (fromiP. cristatus/i) was positive for F gene, indicating it to be a mesogenic/velogenic strain. These results indicate that both lentogenic and velogenic strains of NDV are circulating in wild birds in Haryana and that further studies are needed to characterize NDV strains from wild/migratory birds and domestic poultry to determine the extent of virus transmission among these populations. This study considers the disease transmission risk from domestic pigeons and parrots to commercial poultry and vice versa, and the results emphasize the need for strict biosecurity strategies to protect commercial poultry in the region.Prevalencia del virus de la enfermedad de Newcastle en aves silvestres y migratorias en Haryana, India. El virus de la enfermedad de Newcastle (NDV) puede infectar aproximadamente a 250 especies de aves y causa la enfermedad de Newcastle (ND) altamente contagiosa en la avicultura comercial, lo que genera enormes pérdidas económicas. Hay tres patotipos diferentes del virus de Newcastle, que incluyen, lentogénico, mesogénico y velogénico. Las aves silvestres residentes (silvestres) y migratorias son reservorios naturales del virus de Newcastle y se cree que desempeñan un papel clave en la transmisión del virus a las aves domésticas comerciales. El presente estudio se realizó para determinar la prevalencia del virus de Newcastle en aves silvestres y migratorias en el estado de Haryana, India, durante dos temporadas migratorias (2018-19 y 2019-20). En total, se recolectaron 1379 muestras (1368 hisopos coanales y 11 muestras de tejido) de aves vivas (in/i= 1368) o muertas (in/i= 4) pertenecientes a 53 especies de aves diferentes. Estas muestras pertenecían a aves aparentemente sanas (in/i= 1338), enfermas (in/i= 30) y muertas (in/i= 4). Todas las muestras se analizaron para detectar al virus de Newcastle mediante transcripción reversa y PCR en tiempo real utilizando iniciadores y una sonda específicos del gene M. De las 1379 muestras, 23 muestras de aves silvestres [iColumba livia domestica/i(in/i= 12, 52.17 %),iPavo cristatus/i(in/i= 9, 39.13 %) yiPsittaciformes/i(in/i= 2, 8.69 %)] resultaron positivas para el virus de Newcastle. Solo una de las 23 muestras (deiP. cristatus/i) fue positiva para el gene F, lo que indica que se trata de una cepa mesogénica/velogénica. Estos resultados indican que tanto las cepas lentogénicas como las velogénicas del virus de Newcastle están circulando en las aves silvestres de Haryana y que se necesitan más estudios para caracterizar las cepas del virus de Newcastle de las aves silvestres/migratorias y de las aves domésticas para determinar el alcance de la transmisión del virus entre estas poblaciones. Este estudio considera el riesgo de transmisión de la enfermedad de las palomasdomésticas y loros a las aves comerciales y viceversa, y los resultados enfatizan la necesidad de estrategias estrictas de bioseguridad para proteger las aves comerciales en la región.

Bovine astrovirus (BAstV) is a small single-stranded RNA virus, which belongs taxonomically to genus Mamastrovirus under the family Astroviridae. The BAstV is strongly linked to neonatal diarrhea of calves. A few studies are available on BAstV, mainly from Asia, and to a lesser extent from Europe, South America, and Africa. There is only one report from Egypt, in which BAstV was found in diarrheic calves, either in single- or co-infections, based on reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and BAstV-polymerase enzyme targeting primers. One of the samples was further subjected to genomic characterization using Illumina platform for next generation sequencing (NGS). After being processed, the returned BAstV complete genome was subjected to sequence and phylogenetic analysis in comparison to reference strains. The BAstV open reading frames (ORF1a, ORF1b, and ORF2) followed a nearly similar genetic topology, as they belonged to the same unclassified lineage, which was earlier proposed as BAstV-lineage 1, and is known to be disseminated worldwide. This close phylogenetic relationship between the study strain and other members of this lineage was further confirmed by high nucleotide and amino acid (aa) identities. Additionally, a total of 24 unique aa residues were found through the entire BAstV genome. As being the first report in Egypt, indeed Africa, we believe that this record shall be useful in either taxonomic classification or epidemiological tracking of BAstV. The status of BAstV in Egypt should be carefully investigated with possible to-be-implemented precautions for the protection of animal-raising industries. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13337-021-00668-5.

Background Enterococci are ubiquitous microorganisms having diverse ecological niches but mostly prominently in gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. Production of enterocins make them used as probiotics, but in last few years their role as probiotic become ambiguous. This ambiguity in their probiotic role is related to presence of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes. Moreover, these virulence traits are also known to be transfer genetically which make them opportunistic pathogens in gastrointestinal track. These reports suggest serious concerns related to enterococcus before using them as probiotics. In present study Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of Enterococcus spp was done for checking presence of resistance and virulence genes, isolated from human gut.Methods and resultsFour human origin Enterococcus spp including Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus casseliflavus, and two Enterococcus gallinarum were isolated from human fecal samples, further cultured on blood and MacConkey agar. Sanger sequencing was done using Applied Biosystems 3730xl DNA Analyzer. These strains were further subjected to WGS using oxford nano pore technology MinION. Raw data was analyzed using free online tool epi2me. The Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD) and RAST software’s were used to look for presence of antibiotic resistance genes in these strains. Resistance determinants for clinically important antibiotics (vancomycin) and functional virulence factor genes were detected. G-view server was used for comparative genomics of all strains.Conclusion:The draft genomic sequencing of enterococcus suggested that Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus casseliflavus and Enterococcus gallinarum strains are opportunistic pathogens, having antibiotic resistance genes. All isolates have vancomycin resistance genes which they also expressed phenotypically. Some genes related to bacteriocin resistance were also present in E. casseliflavus and E. gallinarum.

Enterococci are ubiquitous microorganisms having diverse ecological niches but most prominently in gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. Production of enterocins makes them a good probiotic candidate. However, their role as probiotics has become ambiguous in the last few years because of the presence of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes. These virulence traits are known to be transferred genetically, which makes them opportunistic pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract leading to serious concerns about their being used as probiotics. In the present study, Enterococcusspp. isolated from the human gut were subjected to Whole-Genome Sequencing (WGS) to determine the presence of resistance and virulence genes.Four human origins Enterococcus spp. including Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus casseliflavus, and two Enterococcus gallinarum were isolated from human fecal samples and further cultured on blood agar. Sanger sequencing was done using Applied Biosystems 3730xl DNA Analyzer. These strains were further subjected to WGS using oxford nanopore technology MinION. Raw data were analyzed using the free online tool epi2me. The Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database (CARD) and RAST (Rapid Annotation using Subsystem Technology) software were used to look for the presence of antibiotic resistance genes in these strains. Resistance determinants for clinically important antibiotics (vancomycin) and functional virulence factor genes were detected. G-view server was used for comparative genomics of all strains.The genomic sequencing of Enterococcus suggested that E. faecalis, E. casseliflavus, and E. gallinarum strains are opportunistic pathogens, having antibiotic resistance genes. All isolates had vancomycin resistance genes, which were expressed phenotypically. Genes related to bacteriocin resistance were also present in E. casseliflavus and E. gallinarum.

Researchers must be able to measure concentrations, sizes, and infectivity of virus-containing particles in animal agriculture facilities to know how far infectious virus-containing particles may travel through air, where they may deposit in the human or animal respiratory tract, and the most effective ways to limit exposures to them. The objective of this study was to evaluate a variety of impinger and cyclone aerosol or bioaerosol samplers to determine approaches most suitable for detecting and measuring concentrations of virus-containing particles in air. Six impinger/cyclone air samplers, a filter-based sampler, and a cascade impactor were used in separate tests to collect artificially generated aerosols of MS2 bacteriophage and swine and avian influenza viruses. Quantification of infectious MS2 coliphage was carried out using a double agar layer procedure. The influenza viruses were titrated in cell cultures to determine quantities of infectious virus. Viral RNA was extracted and used for quantitative real time RT-PCR, to provide total virus concentrations for all three viruses. The amounts of virus recovered and the measured airborne virus concentrations were calculated and compared among the samplers. Not surprisingly, high flow rate samplers generally collected greater quantities of virus than low flow samplers. However, low flow rate samplers generally measured higher, and likely more accurate, airborne concentrations of Infectious virus and viral RNA than high flow samplers. To assess airborne viruses in the field, a two-sampler approach may work well. A suitable high flow sampler may provide low limits of detection to determine if any virus is present in the air. If virus is detected, a suitable lower flow sampler may measure airborne virus concentrations accurately.

Control technologies to inactivate airborne viruses effectively are needed during the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, and to guard against airborne transmitted diseases. We demonstrate that sealed UV–C flow reactors operating with fluences near 253 ± 1 nm of 13.9–49.6 mJ cm–2 efficiently inactivate coronaviruses in an aerosol. For measurements, porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) was nebulized in a custom-built, 3.86 m wind tunnel housed in a biosafety level class II facility. The single pass log10 reduction of active coronavirus was in excess of 2.2 at a flow rate of 2439 L min–1 (13.9 mJ cm–2) and in excess of 3.7 (99.98% removal efficiency) at 684 L min–1 (49.6 mJ cm–2). Because virus titers resulting from sampling downstream of the UV–C reactor were below the limit of detection, the true log reduction is likely even higher than measured. Comparison of virus titration results to reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR and measurement of fluorescein concentrations (doped into the nebulized aerosol) reveals that the reduction in viable PRCV is primarily due to UV–C based inactivation, as opposed to physical collection of virus. The results confirm that UV–C flow reactors can efficiently inactivate coronaviruses through incorporation into HVAC ducts or recirculating air purifiers.

Kobuvirus infections are common among humans, rodents, carnivores, pigs, and ruminants. We report herein the complete genome sequence of a novel caprine kobuvirus (MN604700) from diarrheic kids in Minnesota. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a kobuvirus genome of 8,139 nt with a single ORF region encoding a polyprotein of 2,480 amino acids. Further analysis revealed nt substitutions along the genome compared with that of the caprine kobuvirus reference strain, with 93% identity. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the clade of the caprine kobuvirus was most closely related to porcine kobuviruses rather than bovine or ovine kobuviruses. Using primers designed from this genome, caprine kobuvirus was identified in the stools of other goats. Sanger sequencing of PCR products indicated 3D and VP1 gene nucleotides of this latter strain were 95% and 91% identical with those of MN604700, respectively. There were 35 and 101 nt substitutions in 3D and VP1 genes, respectively. Findings of kobuvirus over a 2-y period may indicate an endemic state, which needs further research. In addition, screening for kobuviruses over large geographic areas is needed to identify the evolutionary connections among different strains.

Background:Although highly strict social distancing and viral spread protection guidelines are in force, the reported numbers of COVID-19 cases across the world are still increasing. This indicates that we are still unable to completely understand the transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2. One of the possible routes that can play a significant role is the fecal-oral transmission since SARS-CoV-2 can replicate in the intestines as demonstrated by isolation of infectious virus from fecal samples of COVID-19 cases. Scope and approach:In this review, we compare the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 with the distinctive characteristics of enteric foodborne viruses. We also discuss and respond to the arguments given in some reports that downplay the importance of foodborne transmission route of SARS-CoV-2. Key findings and conclusions:Enteric viruses such as human noroviruses (HuNoVs) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) are known to transmit through foods such as fresh produce and berries, leading to frequent multistate foodborne disease outbreaks all over the world. SARS-CoV-2 was found to share four distinctive characteristics of foodborne viruses that allow them to transmit through foods. This similarity in characteristics, recent report of detecting SARS-CoV-2 particles from frozen food packages in China, and recent suspected foodborne COVID-19 case in New Zealand, indicate that foodborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is more evident than previously thought possible. To support or deny this route of transmission, urgent research needs to be undertaken to answer two primary questions and many secondary ones as described in this review.

A flock of captive bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) experienced loose droppings, depression, and increased mortality starting at 3 wk of age. Necropsy of the affected birds revealed intestines dilated with frothy and tan fluid. Irregular dark brown fissures within the koilin layer of the gizzard were found in 20%-30% of the birds. Histologically, gizzards showed multifocal koilin degeneration or fragmentation, degeneration and necrosis of the subjacent epithelial cells, and infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, and heterophils. Necrotic epithelial cells occasionally contained large, smudgy, basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies with marginated nuclear chromatin. Adenoviral paracrystalline arrays composed of icosahedral virions (60-70 nm diameter) were seen on transmission electron microscopy in the nuclei of epithelial cells in the gizzard mucosa. Adenovirus was isolated from gizzard, liver, intestine, and trachea by inoculation of specific-pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs. Homogenates of the gizzard, liver, and intestine were positive for the adenovirus hexon gene by PCR. Sequencing of PCR amplicons confirmed the virus as fowl aviadenovirus A. The study isolates showed more than 99% and 97% nucleotide identity with quail bronchitis virus and with aviadenoviruses from gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU) in broilers, respectively. The viral isolates showed six substitutions (G1T, C174A, A229G, C513A, T579A, and G621C) of which two were nonsynonymous (G1T and A229G), resulting in a change in the translated amino acid as A1S and S77G, respectively. These results indicate that adenoviruses of the same type or species can cause different clinical presentations in quails, e.g., bronchitis or GEU.

Although the unprecedented efforts the world has been taking to control the spread of the human coronavirus disease (COVID‐19) and its causative aetiology [severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2)], the number of confirmed cases has been increasing drastically. Therefore, there is an urgent need for devising more efficient preventive measures, to limit the spread of the infection until an effective treatment or vaccine is available. The preventive measures depend mainly on the understanding of the transmission routes of this virus, its environmental stability, and its persistence on common touch surfaces. Due to the very limited knowledge about SARS‐CoV‐2, we can speculate its stability in the light of previous studies conducted on other human and animal coronaviruses. In this review, we present the available data on the stability of coronaviruses (CoVs), including SARS‐CoV‐2, from previous reports to help understand its environmental survival. According to available data, possible airborne transmission of SARS‐CoV‐2 has been suggested. SARS‐CoV‐2 and other human and animal CoVs have remarkably short persistence on copper, latex and surfaces with low porosity as compared to other surfaces like stainless steel, plastics, glass and highly porous fabrics. It has also been reported that SARS‐CoV‐2 is associated with diarrhoea and that it is shed in the faeces of COVID‐19 patients. Some CoVs show persistence in human excrement, sewage and waters for a few days. These findings suggest a possible risk of faecal–oral, foodborne and waterborne transmission of SARS‐CoV‐2 in developing countries that often use sewage‐polluted waters in irrigation and have poor water treatment systems. CoVs survive longer in the environment at lower temperatures and lower relative humidity. It has been suggested that large numbers of COVID‐19 cases are associated with cold and dry climates in temperate regions of the world and that seasonality of the virus spread is suspected.

A flock of captive bobwhite quail (

Papillomaviruses affect both human and non-human hosts. In camels, papillomatosis is caused by Camelus dromedarius papillomavirus type 1 and 2 (CdPV1 and CdPV2, respectively). In late 2018, an outbreak of camelpox occurred in a herd of fattening camels in Egypt. Several animals were found to be co-infected with camelpox and camel papillomaviruses. The morbidity with papillomatosis was 35 %. The infection was confirmed by PCR then Illumina sequencing revealed the presence of a complete genome of two CdPVs. One of these was CdPV1 (MT130101) and the other was a putative novel virus, tentatively named as CdPV3 (MT130100). Seven ORFs and a long upstream regulatory region were identified in the genomes of both viruses. Pairwise comparisons of L1 gene revealed 98.92 % nt identity between MT130101/CdPV1/Egypt/2018 and HQ912790/CdPV1/Sudan/2009 with 100 % coverage. However, MT130100/CdPV3/ Egypt/2018 showed only 68.99 % nt identity with the closest genome HQ912791/CdPV2/Sudan/2009. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that CdPV1 and CdPV3 belonged to the genus Deltapapillomavirus. These results should be useful for future CdPVs molecular surveillance and construction of evolutionary characteristics of this virus.

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT) is an important bacterial pathogen of great economic significance to poultry production. This bacterium causes severe disease in chickens and turkeys worldwide. The objective of this study was to characterize ORT isolates from two different geographic locations in the United States by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). A total of 60 isolates were included in this study; 36 from California and 24 from Minnesota. All 60 isolates were confirmed to be ORT by PCR that targeted the 16S rRNA gene. The results of MLST revealed eight different sequence types (ST) of ORT. Out of these, four were novel and were assigned numbers ST-32, ST-33, ST-34, and ST-35. ST-1 was the predominant sequence type among all isolates followed by ST-9 and ST-8. Only one isolate was identified as ST-2. No significant variation was seen in STs in ORT isolated from different years. In turkeys, 76.3% (29/38) of isolates belonged to ST-1 and 7.9% (3/38) to ST-8. Of the chicken isolates, 72.2% (13/18) belonged to ST-1 and 16.6% (3/18) to ST-9. Isolates from both states showed low genetic variability. Of the 32 isolates from California, 24 (75%) were identified as ST-1 and 4 (12.5%) were identified as ST-9. The most prevalent sequence type was ST-1 (17/24) followed by ST-8 (3/24) in Minnesota. Three isolates from turkeys in Minnesota belonged to the same ST (ST-8) as the already known ORT strain RefO, which isolated from a rook in Germany in 2000. Whether this sequence type had evolved from wild birds could not be ascertained in this study.