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This work focuses on understanding how researchers in Spain perceive the importance of social media in scientific communication and dissemination and deepening their understanding of the influential underlying factors. From the initial identification of 5,314 researchers affiliated with higher education institutions in Spain, who published in journals indexed in Scopus and Web of Sciences from 2016 to 2020, 487 were surveyed, and 20 were interviewed. The results show how despite the potential of non-academic social media for the social dissemination of scientific knowledge, use remains low among the researchers surveyed in this study. Also, data allow us to recognize how the time of use of social media and the perception of the training needed influence the perception of the usefulness of social media by Spanish researchers on education. Use that does not seem to be oriented toward dialogue and citizen participation. Higher education institutions should improve the communication and scientific dissemination led by researchers through training and the design of dissemination policies that guarantee an active and general use of them (not only academics but also generalists like Facebook or Youtube) to transfer scientific knowledge to society better

Non-university teaching staf must use social media platforms (SMP) to update themselves on educational matters. This study aims to analyze how these teachers in Spanish non-university education, diferentiating between men and women, value and use SMPs to update themselves in educational matters. A total of 463 Spanish teachers participated in this survey-type study. The results show that the perception of usefulness, responsible use, and the role of educational institutions and agents remains medium or low. At the descriptive level, diferences between men and women are detected in the perceptions of the teachers surveyed, with female teachers hav‑ ing a more favourable perception of the usefulness, use, and role of social media assumed by the institutions in which they work professionally compared to male teachers. It is concluded that there are three profles of non-university teachers according to the variables analyzed that do not show diferences according to the sex of the teachers. The implications of this study help to propose actions that help improve the scenario by 1) increasing the training channels, 2) increasing the levels of educational innovation through SMP, 3) increasing the efectiveness of teaching– learning strategies, and 4) promoting of skills that contribute to greater use and per‑ ception of these scenarios for the training of teachers and students.

The present work seeks to know non-university teachers' perceptions of the usefulness of social networks for their continuous training. 463 members of this study population in Spain were surveyed at the end of 2021. The data allows us to observe a series of features associated with the use of social networks means that the cognitive capacity generated through these scenarios is still certainly low in some cases. In addition, a series of relational, structural, and cognitive traits that exert different levels of influence around the proposed topic. Based on the data analyzed, teachers need actions to focus on identifying scientific content disseminated from social networks; to recognized and using different networks that exist today beyond the general ones; applying the rules for detecting and using scientific content; as well as a better assessment of the sense of scientific use of social media for their lifelong learning., El trabajo busca conocer la percepción que tienen los docentes, en cuanto a la utilidad que tienen las redes sociales para su formación continua. Se encuestó, a finales de 2021, a 463 miembros de esta población en España. Los datos muestran características asociadas al uso de las redes sociales que hacen que la capacidad cognitiva generada de su empleo sea aún baja. Además, se identifican una serie de rasgos relacionales, estructurales y cognitivos que ejercen diferentes niveles de influencia en torno al tema propuesto. Con base a los datos analizados, los docentes necesitan acciones que les ayude a identificar contenidos científicos difundidos desde las redes sociales; a reconocer la diversidad de tipos de redes sociales, más allá de las generalistas; aplicar normas de detección y aprovechamiento de contenido científico divulgado; así como a tener una mejor valoración de la utilidad científica de este tipo de contextos para su formación continua.

The paper seeks to determine the application of Astroturfing strategies on Twitter, at the Spanish level, during the period of the pandemic caused by covid-19 in the spring of 2020. Statistical analysis, network analysis and machine learning techniques, around 32,527 messages, published from the state of alarm decree in Spain (March 14, 2020) until the end of May of the same year, associated with eight tags that address issues related to disinformative content identified by two of the main fact-checking projects (Maldito Bulo and Newtral). Data allows us to observe the participation of users (not bots), who play the role of influencers despite having an average profile or a profile that is far from being considered a public personality. The application of Astroturfing can be seen as a communication strategy used to position issues on social networks through the distribution, amplification and flooding of disinformative content. The scenario allows us to verify the presence of a digital communication scenario that would favour a framework difficult to detect, from strategies such as the one studied, aimed at breaking the echo chamber and filter bubble of social networks. All with the aim of positioning issues at the level of public opinion., Este documento procura determinar a aplicação de estratégias de Astroturfing no Twitter, a nível espanhol, durante o período pandémico devido à covid-19, na Primavera de 2020. Análise estatística, análise de rede e técnicas de aprendizagem de máquinas são aplicadas a 32.527 mensagens publicadas desde o decreto do estado de alarme em Espanha (14 de Março de 2020) até ao final de Maio de 2020, associadas a oito etiquetas que abordam tópicos relacionados com conteúdos desinformativos identificados por dois dos principais projectos de verificação de factos (Maldito Bulo e Newtral). Os dados permitem-nos observar a participação dos utilizadores (não dos bots), que desempenham o papel de influenciadores apesar de terem um perfil médio ou um perfil que está longe de ser considerado uma personalidade pública. A aplicação de Astroturfing pode ser vista como uma estratégia de comunicação utilizada para posicionar questões sobre redes sociais através da distribuição, amplificação e inundação de conteúdo desinformativo. O cenário permite-nos verificar a presença de um cenário de comunicação digital que favoreceria um quadro difícil de detectar, a partir de estratégias como a que foi estudada, visando quebrar o efeito sino e filtrar a bolha das redes sociais. Tudo com o objectivo de posicionar as questões ao nível da opinião pública., Este trabajo busca determinar la aplicación de estrategias de Astroturfing en Twitter, a nivel español, durante el periodo de pandemia a causa de la covid-19, en la primavera del año 2020. Se aplica análisis estadístico, análisis de redes y técnicas de machine learning, en 32.527 mensajes publicados a partir del decreto de estado de alarma en España (14 de marzo de 2020) hasta finales de mayo del mismo año, asociados ocho etiquetas que abordan temas vinculados a contenidos desinformativos identificados por dos de los principales proyectos de fact-checking (Maldito Bulo y Newtral). Los datos permiten observar la participación de usuarios (no bots), que ejercen un rol de influenciadores pese a que cuentan con un perfil promedio o alejado a ser considerados como personalidad pública. Se aprecia la aplicación del Astroturfing como estrategia de comunicación empleada para posicionar temas en las redes sociales a través de la distribución, amplificación y la inundación de contenidos desinformativos. El escenario permite comprobar la presencia de un escenario comunicativo digital que favorecería un marco difícil de detección, desde estrategias como la estudiada, orientadas a romper el efecto campana y filtro de burbuja de redes sociales. Todo con el fin de posicionar temas a nivel de opinión pública.

Introduction. The purpose of this review is to review the literature that analyzes the relationship between gamification, motivation, and learning and thus, provide pedagogical and didactic ideas for its implementation in non-university education. Method. A mixed methodology is applied, through which an intentional sample of 37 articles is analyzed, intentionally chosen following the evaluation standards of the AERA (2006), out of a total of 1,706 studies published in ISI Web Of Science. Results. Based on the AERA (2006) evaluation controls, 37 intentionally chosen studies were selected and analyzed. Gamification was confirmed as having a direct and positive impact on students’ experiences in terms of their motivation and performance. Discussion. The work points to gamification is being approached academically from two perspectives, as a methodology oriented to students’ motivation in their competence learning; and as a way to enhance academic performance in different areas of knowledge., Introdução. O objetivo deste artigo é revisar a literatura que analisa a relação entre gamificação, motivação e aprendizado e, assim, fornecer ideias pedagógicas e didáticas para sua implementação no ensino não universitário. Metodologia. Foi feita uma seleção aleatória de 2.530 estudos publicados no Google Scholar Google entre os períodos de 2017-2019 e 400 de um total de 1.706 estudos publicados no ISI Web Of Science, entre os períodos de 2015-2019, com 95% de confiança e +/- 4,3 de erro amostral. Resultados. Foram selecionados e analisados 37 estudos escolhidos intencionalmente, seguindo os padrões de avaliação da (AERA, 2006). É constatado que a gamificação tem uma repercussão direta e positiva sobre as experiencias dos estudantes no que se refere a sua motivação e rendimento. Conclusão. O trabalho aponta que a gamificação está sendo abordada academicamente sob duas perspectivas: como uma metodologia destinada a motivar os estudantes na aprendizagem de competências; e como, Introducción. El propósito de este artículo es revisar la bibliografía que analiza la relación entre gamificación, motivación y aprendizaje y, así, proporcionar ideas pedagógicas y didácticas para su implementación en la educación no universitaria. Metodología. Se realiza una metodología mixta, en la que se analiza una muestra intencional conformada por 37 artículos, escogidos intencionalmente siguiendo los estándares de evaluación de la American Educational Research Association (AERA, 2006), de un total de 1 706 estudios, publicados en ISI Web Of Science. Resultados. Se seleccionaron y analizaron 37 estudios escogidos intencionalmente siguiendo los estándares de evaluación de la AERA (2006), y se constata que la gamificación tiene una repercusión directa y positiva sobre las experiencias del alumnado en cuanto a su motivación y rendimiento. Discusión. El trabajo apunta a que la gamificación está siendo abordada académicamente desde dos perspectivas: como metodología orientada a la motivación del alumnado en su aprendizaje competencial; y como forma de potenciar el rendimiento académico en las diferentes áreas del conocimiento.