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BackgroundLiving in urban places has been associated with a higher risk of psychopathology as well as with altered hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and consequently altered cortisol response, but studies have concentrated mainly in high-income countries population. The role of other hormones such as testosterone, implicated in stress response and with human social behaviors, have not yet been investigated. The aim of this study was to compare symptoms of psychopathology as well as cortisol and testosterone in response to traumatic images between urban and suburban people in a middle-income country.MethodsA sample of 67 women and 55 men (N = 122, 18–45 years) from urban and suburban places of Mexico participated in the study. We quantified salivary cortisol and testosterone in response to images with traumatic and violent content (basal, 15, 30, and 45 min after images). Participants answered a general information questionnaire and the Symptom Checklist-90-R to assess their psychopathological traits. We performed Generalized Estimating Equation Models to analyze hormonal levels and MANOVAs to compare differences in participants’ psychopathology symptoms. Area under the curve respect to ground (AUCG) of hormonal levels and sex differences were also compared.ResultsSuburban citizens showed no cortisol response, whereas urban people showed a cortisol peak 15 min after the image’s exposure; however, suburban people had higher AUCG and basal levels compared to urban ones. Contrastingly, testosterone levels declined in all participants excepting the urban women, who showed no testosterone response. Although similar testosterone profile, AUCG levels were higher in urban than suburban men. Participants living in suburban areas had higher scores of somatizations, obsessive–compulsive, and interpersonal sensitivity, as well as more sleep disorders than participants living in urban areas.ConclusionThis study offers novel evidence about differences in cortisol and testosterone responses to a social stressor and in mental health indicators between a population of urban and suburban citizens, highlighting the impact of urbanization process on physiological and psychological outcomes in a middle-income country.

OBJETIVO. En este estudio se buscó, por una parte, corroborar el incremento en el consumo de alcohol en la población femenina, de acuerdo con los resultados de las Encuestas Nacionales de Adicciones (ENA) de 1988 y 1993, y determinar los grupos de edad afectados; por otra parte, obtener información básica acerca de la edad de inicio, la cantidad de alcohol consumida por ocasión y la frecuencia de embriaguez en la población adulta de la Ciudad de México, como indicadores para orientar programas preventivos. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. Con una encuesta de hogares y mediante un diseño polietápico y estratificado, se llevaron a cabo 1 932 entrevistas completas con individuos de entre 18 y 65 años de edad, con una tasa de respuesta de 60.4%. Se utilizó una versión modificada de la Entrevista Psiquiátrica Internacional Compuesta (CIDI, por sus siglas en inglés), que es un instrumento altamente estructurado; lo puede utilizar personal no especializado, aunque sí con capacitación. En la sección que trata acerca del consumo de alcohol se preguntó la edad en que se tomó la primera copa, la frecuencia y la cantidad del consumo por ocasión, y la frecuencia de embriaguez en el último año, entre otras variables. Para este estudio se obtuvieron las medianas y los porcentajes por grupos de edad y sexo. RESULTADOS. Se observó que 96.5% de la población masculina y 81.1% de la población femenina han consumido al menos una copa de alcohol en su vida. En promedio, la edad de inicio en el consumo fueron los 16 años para los varones y los 18 años para las mujeres. Por grupos de edad, se apreció una clara tendencia a beber la primera copa a edades más tempranas, sobre todo entre las mujeres. Se corroboró la tendencia que indican las ENA acerca del aumento en el consumo de alcohol entre la población femenina y en los grupos de edad más jóvenes. Los resultados indicaron que, en promedio, cinco años después del inicio del contacto con el alcohol, la población de ambos sexos alcanza su más alto nivel de consumo, mismo que en general tiende a ser excesivo. Asimismo, se hizo evidente un incremento en la ingesta riesgosa de alcohol entre las mujeres (cinco copas o más por ocasión), que es de casi cuatro veces más en un periodo de siete años y con una aparente tendencia al aumento. De la población bebedora, 60% redujo su ingesta antes de los 30 años; sin embargo, el 40% restante ha continuado bebiendo igual o en mayor cantidad, en particular las mujeres. CONCLUSIONES. La edad de inicio en el consumo del alcohol se ha reducido entre las mujeres, y se aprecian tendencias al exceso. Los programas preventivos acerca del abuso en el consumo de alcohol y sus consecuencias deben dirigirse a la población más joven, haciendo énfasis en el sexo femenino.OBJECTIVE. The objectives of the present study were: 1) To corroborate the increase in alcohol consumption in the female population registered by results from the National Surveys on Addictions (ENA), 1988 and 1993; and 2) to determine affected age groups, and obtain basic information on age of onset, amount consumed per event and drunkenness frequency in the adult population of Mexico City, as indicators to orient preventive measures. MATERIAL AND METHODS. A multi-stage, stratified household survey was applied. A total of 1 932 interviews was completed, subjects were between 18 and 65 years of age, with a response rate of 60.4%. The instrument was a modified version of the Composite International Psychiatric Interview (CIDI), which is a highly structured instrument, applicable by non-specialized personnel, although limited training is necessary. The alcohol section included questions on the age of the first drink, the frequency and amount consumed during each event and the drunkenness frequency during the last 12 months, among other variables. Median and percentage were obtained by sex and among age-cohorts. RESULTS. Of the total, 96.5% of men and 81.1% of women have consumed at least one drink in their lives. In average, age of onset is 16 years for men, and 18 years for women. Age group comparisons show a clear tendency to begin drinking at an earlier age, particularly in women. The growing trend indicated by ENA with respect to alcohol consumption in the feminine population and at a younger age was corroborated. Results indicated that, in average, 5 years after the age of onset, both men and women reach their highest quantities of alcohol consumption, which tend to be excessive. Additionally, high-risk drinking among women (five or more drinks per event) increased to be four times higher in a period of seven years, and with an apparent tendency to rise. Sixty percent of the drinking population reduced alcohol consumption before the age of 30, however, the remaining 40% continued to drink at the same rate, or even increased consumption, particularly among women. CONCLUSIONS. The age of onset of alcohol consumption has diminished, especially in women, showing tendencies towards abuse. Preventive programs should predominantly focus on young age groups with emphasis on the feminine population.

OBJETIVO. En este estudio se buscó, por una parte, corroborar el incremento en el consumo de alcohol en la población femenina, de acuerdo con los resultados de las Encuestas Nacionales de Adicciones (ENA) de 1988 y 1993, y determinar los grupos de edad afectados; por otra parte, obtener información básica acerca de la edad de inicio, la cantidad de alcohol consumida por ocasión y la frecuencia de embriaguez en la población adulta de la Ciudad de México, como indicadores para orientar programas preventivos. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. Con una encuesta de hogares y mediante un diseño polietápico y estratificado, se llevaron a cabo 1 932 entrevistas completas con individuos de entre 18 y 65 años de edad, con una tasa de respuesta de 60.4%. Se utilizó una versión modificada de la Entrevista Psiquiátrica Internacional Compuesta (CIDI, por sus siglas en inglés), que es un instrumento altamente estructurado; lo puede utilizar personal no especializado, aunque sí con capacitación. En la sección que trata acerca del consumo de alcohol se preguntó la edad en que se tomó la primera copa, la frecuencia y la cantidad del consumo por ocasión, y la frecuencia de embriaguez en el último año, entre otras variables. Para este estudio se obtuvieron las medianas y los porcentajes por grupos de edad y sexo. RESULTADOS. Se observó que 96.5% de la población masculina y 81.1% de la población femenina han consumido al menos una copa de alcohol en su vida. En promedio, la edad de inicio en el consumo fueron los 16 años para los varones y los 18 años para las mujeres. Por grupos de edad, se apreció una clara tendencia a beber la primera copa a edades más tempranas, sobre todo entre las mujeres. Se corroboró la tendencia que indican las ENA acerca del aumento en el consumo de alcohol entre la población femenina y en los grupos de edad más jóvenes. Los resultados indicaron que, en promedio, cinco años después del inicio del contacto con el alcohol, la población de ambos sexos alcanza su más alto nivel de consumo, mismo que en general tiende a ser excesivo. Asimismo, se hizo evidente un incremento en la ingesta riesgosa de alcohol entre las mujeres (cinco copas o más por ocasión), que es de casi cuatro veces más en un periodo de siete años y con una aparente tendencia al aumento. De la población bebedora, 60% redujo su ingesta antes de los 30 años; sin embargo, el 40% restante ha continuado bebiendo igual o en mayor cantidad, en particular las mujeres. CONCLUSIONES. La edad de inicio en el consumo del alcohol se ha reducido entre las mujeres, y se aprecian tendencias al exceso. Los programas preventivos acerca del abuso en el consumo de alcohol y sus consecuencias deben dirigirse a la población más joven, haciendo énfasis en el sexo femenino.

Objetivo. Determinar la prevalencia de abuso sexual en estudiantes de secundaria y preparatoria, hombres y mujeres, de todo el país, así como su relación con el consumo de drogas. Material y métodos. Los datos fueron obtenidos de la Encuesta Nacional de Uso de Drogas en la Comunidad Escolar, llevada a cabo en noviembre y diciembre de 1991, en la que fueron encuestados un total de 61 779 alumnos, 51.8% hombres y 47.1% mujeres, con una media de edad de 14.4 años. Se utilizó un instrumento autoaplicado, en el que el abuso sexual fue explorado tanto desde la perspectiva de quienes lo han experimentado -víctimas-, como desde quienes lo han ejercido -agresores. Resultados. La prevalencia de adolescentes víctimas de abuso sexual fue de 4.3%, y no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre sexos. La prevalencia de agresores fue de 2.5%; los adolescentes varones habían coercionado sexualmente a otra persona en proporción significativamente mayor que las mujeres. Estas sufrieron el abuso a edades menores en un porcentaje significativamente más alto que los hombres. Asimismo, notificaron una proporción más elevada de abusos por parte de familiares, mientras que los hombres mencionaron principalmente a los amigos como los agresores más frecuentes. Tanto las víctimas como los agresores de ambos sexos, reportaron un consumo de drogas significativamente mayor que los estudiantes sin estos antecedentes. Conclusiones. Se enfatizan las diferencias en la experiencia de abuso sexual de mujeres y hombres como víctimas y como agresores. En particular, se discute el hecho de que el abuso sexual en varones sea principalmente extrafamiliar, así como el riesgo mayor que tienen las mujeres de ser víctimas de abuso sexual intrafamiliar en edades tempranas. Asimismo, se plantea la necesidad de abordar las consecuencias, en la salud mental, del abuso sexual infantil y adolescente y del consumo de drogas, considerando las particularidades de cada género.Objective. To determine the prevalence of sexual abuse among high school (secondary and preparatory) students, male and female, throughout Mexico, and its relationship with drug abuse. Material and methods. Data were obtained from the National Survey of Drug Use in Schools applied in November and December, 1991. A total of 61 779 students, 51.8% men and 47.1% women, with a mean age of 14.4 years completed the self-applied questionnaire. Sexual abuse was explored from the perspective of the abusers and of the victims. Results. The prevalence of sexual abuse in adolescent victims was 4.3% and no statistically significant differences were found between sexes. The prevalence of sexual aggressors was 2.5%. Men coerced someone else in a higher proportion than women. Adolescent women experienced sexual abuse at a younger age than men and they also reported a higher percentage of intrafamily abuse. Men reported friends as the most frequent aggressors. Victims and aggressors of both sexes reported a significantly higher drug consumption than students without these antecedents. Conclusions. The differences in the experience of sexual abuse between men and women are described. In particular, the fact that sexual abuse in men mainly occurs outside the family sphere, while in women it is mainly within the family and at a younger age than in men. Additionally, the need for further research focusing on the consequences on mental health of infantile and adolescent sexual abuse and drug consumption is emphasized, considering the characteristics of each gender.

Objetivo. Determinar la prevalencia de abuso sexual en estudiantes de secundaria y preparatoria, hombres y mujeres, de todo el país, así como su relación con el consumo de drogas. Material y métodos. Los datos fueron obtenidos de la Encuesta Nacional de Uso de Drogas en la Comunidad Escolar, llevada a cabo en noviembre y diciembre de 1991, en la que fueron encuestados un total de 61 779 alumnos, 51.8% hombres y 47.1% mujeres, con una media de edad de 14.4 años. Se utilizó un instrumento autoaplicado, en el que el abuso sexual fue explorado tanto desde la perspectiva de quienes lo han experimentado -víctimas-, como desde quienes lo han ejercido -agresores. Resultados. La prevalencia de adolescentes víctimas de abuso sexual fue de 4.3%, y no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre sexos. La prevalencia de agresores fue de 2.5%; los adolescentes varones habían coercionado sexualmente a otra persona en proporción significativamente mayor que las mujeres. Estas sufrieron el abuso a edades menores en un porcentaje significativamente más alto que los hombres. Asimismo, notificaron una proporción más elevada de abusos por parte de familiares, mientras que los hombres mencionaron principalmente a los amigos como los agresores más frecuentes. Tanto las víctimas como los agresores de ambos sexos, reportaron un consumo de drogas significativamente mayor que los estudiantes sin estos antecedentes. Conclusiones. Se enfatizan las diferencias en la experiencia de abuso sexual de mujeres y hombres como víctimas y como agresores. En particular, se discute el hecho de que el abuso sexual en varones sea principalmente extrafamiliar, así como el riesgo mayor que tienen las mujeres de ser víctimas de abuso sexual intrafamiliar en edades tempranas. Asimismo, se plantea la necesidad de abordar las consecuencias, en la salud mental, del abuso sexual infantil y adolescente y del consumo de drogas, considerando las particularidades de cada género.

The increasing burden of interpersonal violence in women in Mexico is a neglected social and health problem that competes with other leading causes of premature death, disability, and health losses in young women. In this article, we focus on revealing the burden of violence in girls and young women and its implications for public policy. This study presents the subnational analysis of Mexico from the Global Burden of Disease study (1990-2015). The global study harmonized information of 195 countries and 79 risk factors. The study analyzed the deaths, years of life lost to premature death (YLL), years lived with disability (YLD), and the healthy years of life lost or disability-adjusted life year (DALY) related to violence. Nationwide, violence in young women accounts for 7% of all deaths in the 10 to 29 years age group and arises as the second most important cause of death in all age groups, except 10 to 14 years old, where it stands in the seventh position from 1990 to 2015. The health losses and social impact related to violence in young women demands firm actions by the government and society. It is urgent for health institutions to focus on the health of girls and young women because gender inequities have an enormous effect on their lives. Girls and women are nearly universally less powerful, less privileged, and have fewer opportunities than men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual violence occurs when an individual obtains sexual interaction through coercion, intimidation, blackmail, lesions or threats of physical harm. It ranges from slight approaches to rape, and involves some kind of persuasion to obtaining unwanted sexual interactions; it happens more often in dating relationships. The aim of this paper is to measure the association of sexual attitudes and the acceptance of rape myths with sexual coercion in a sample of college students, and compare these variables by sex and age. The sample was non-probabilistic and included 630 students (51% had experiences of sexual coercion); 71% of men reported practicing sexual coercion. Women who practiced sexual coercion had a less traditional sexual attitude than men (F= 21.413, p<.001), and women who faced sexual coercion had a more permissive attitude in sexual interactions (F=37.432, p<.001). Men who faced sexual coercion blamed rape victims more than women (F=10.603, p=.001). Younger men also blamed rape victims more than the older ones (F=9.841, p=.002). When women use sexual coercion it seems to have a paradoxical implication regarding their gender role. It also appears to be a problem for negotiating safe sexual encounters; women who reported more sexual permissiveness seem to participate more frequently in unplanned sexual interactions and they may be more vulnerable to coercion. It is necessary to modify beliefs about abusive sexual behaviors being normal in dating relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexual coercion in the context of flirting or courtship is a form of sexual violence that has rarely been explored in Mexico, with studies mainly being undertaken in the United States and some European countries. This may be due to the fact that it includes the use of certain practices that have traditionally not been regarded as violent and, on the contrary, been viewed as «normal» within intimate heterosexual relations. Like other forms of sexual violence, the definition of social coercion involves conceptual and methodological problems, since the term has been used interchangeably with other forms of sexual violence. Generally speaking, violence on dates or during courtship and sexual aggression tend to refer to a domineering behavior in sexual behavior in which physical aggression is used. At the same time, sexual coercion comprises a continuum of practices ranging from subtle psychological pressure and the use of language to the utilization of physical aggression to secure a sexual encounter. This form of violence may trigger major problems in the areas of mental, sexual, and reproductive health. For the purposes of this study, sexual coercion is defined as any type of physical or emotional pressure used by a person to impose acts of a sexual nature on another person within the context of a mutually agreed on heterosexual encounter to go out together, get to know each other or engage in a romantic or erotic relationship or in a more formal relationship such as courtship. This type of sexual violence occurs in Latin American countries where couple relationships continue to be regulated by certain cultural traditions that may prevent the problem from being detected. These norms, which are often stereotyped, create «sexual scripts», in other words, structural blocks of information processing that combine concepts, categories and relationships based on the social experience that indicate how heterosexual relationships «should» be conducted. These scripts and their particular expression are strongly influenced by cultural attitudes and beliefs for men and women. In view of this context, it is hardly surprising that men and women engage in coercion in different ways to secure a sexual encounter. These different forms of coercion have been conceptualized as «tactics», whether direct or indirect. Given the need to know how sexual coercion is defined, how it is exercised and whether coercive behavior is in fact identified, this study seeks to determine the meaning of sexual coercion, the tactics used by both sexes and the way in which young university students interpret the same coercive event. Method One way of dealing with the significance of a phenomenon, as well as its interpretation, is through the qualitative approach; for the purposes of this study, focus groups were used. Participants A total of 27 students comprised four focus groups, two comprising women, two comprising men. Three of these groups consisted of seven participants and one of six. The age range was 18 to 25. Data gathering techniques In order to obtain the information, thematic guidelines were drawn up to explore the meaning and interpretation students give sexual coercion as well as the type of tactics they recognize as being used by men and women. Procedure: The study was carried out at two universities, after inviting participants to attend a focus group. At each public and private university, two groups (one of men, one of women) were formed. Analytical strategy For the analysis of the focus groups, audio-recorded interviews were transcribed. For each of the study, the entire transcription was read out for the first level of analysis. This was followed by segmentation, the extraction of fragments or paragraphs, sentences, phrases of words regarded as significant.… [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The purpose of this article is to determine the degree of physical violence received and inflicted over the past two years by a sample of women in prison in their relationships with their partners ( N =213). Over half of the women report having suffered some form of violence at the hands of their partners at some time in their lives. As for physical violence experienced over the past two years, one out of every four women has experienced violence at the hands of her partner. The women in this study rated the act of physical violence they had experienced in the past two years as severe, a term they also used to describe the degree of disturbance, anger and fear they felt after the violent incident. As for the violence the women inflicted on their partners, one out of every four women has inflicted violence on her partner (26.8%) although they rate the most aggressive event during these past two years as slight. After the event, over half the women felt severely disturbed as well as slightly angry and scared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An abstract of the paper "Determination of Salmonella spp in free Salmonella breeder houses by different sampling methods," by O. Urquiza-Bravo and colleagues is presented.