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Ensuring that marketed medicines meet acceptable standards (safety, quality, and efficacy) involves aspects of product development, compliance with good manufacturing practices, and monitoring and testing of these products already on the market. Pharmacopeias are one of the main tools used by regulatory authorities in the analytical testing for quality assessment; there are almost 60 pharmacopeias in the world. Thus, this research evaluated the potential impacts of the differences between the pharmacopeial specifications in the quality assessment of these products. It also assessed the use of analytical data to strengthen these surveillance systems. The pharmacopeial specifications for assay determination and dissolution test from United States Pharmacopeia (USP), British (BP), Brazilian (FB), Portuguese (FP), Argentine (FA), and International (Ph. Int.) Pharmacopeias were compared. The quality control reports and results of the Brazilian conformity assessment program were used to support the research. The possibility of selection of medicines or manufacturers for monitoring, sampling, and testing, as well as good manufacturing practice inspections based on analytical data were observed, even considering compliant cases or those within the tolerance limits. An important impact of acceptance criteria given in the individual monographs of different pharmacopeias regarding quality testing was also observed. Strengthening of the pharmacopeial harmonization projects and universalization of the requirements provided by the individual monographs can help in supporting the internationalization of the pharmaceutical market and improving access to medicines., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Type 2 diabetes plays a major role in public health, affecting about 400 million adults. One of the used strategies to control type 2 diabetes is the inhibition of α-amylase activity to reduce post-prandial blood glucose levels. Therefore, in past decades, the search of new α-amylase inhibitors has led to the evaluation of natural products as a source of these compounds. Pouteria torta (Sapotaceae) is widespread in Brazil and bears edible fruits. Epicarp and pulp crude extracts of fresh fruits were studied for in vitro α-amylase inhibition activity. The pulp did not present activity while epicarp, usually considered as waste, showed a high α-amylase inhibitory capacity when compared with acarbose and Triticum aestivum. Therefore, an assay-guided fractionation study of epicarp crude extract was performed. Fraction VI shows very high inhibitory activity with IC 50 of 9 μg/mL. However, subsequent fractionation led to lower inhibition potential (IC 50 of 22.1 μg/mL). The qualitative characterization of fraction VI were performed by chromatographic and spectrometric analysis and showed the presence of epicatechin, catechin, sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant capacity were also assessed and there seemed to be no correlation between phenolic or flavonoids-rich fractions and antioxidant capacity or α-amylase inhibitory activity., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Pouteria ramiflora (Mart.) Radlk. (Sapotaceae) is a species used by inhabitants from the Cerrado for its edible fruits and medicinal value. Hexane crude extracts from leaves and fractions were evaluated for in vitro α-amylase inhibitory activity and antioxidant potential. The fraction with the highest α-amylase inhibitory activity was submitted to a phytochemical study. Three triterpenes were isolated, friedelin, epi-friedelanol, and taraxerol. This is the first report of these compounds isolated from P. ramiflora. Moreover, this is the first report of friedelin isolated from Pouteria sp. Epi-friedelanol was present in significant amounts, suggesting that this compound could be a candidate marker for this species., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The repetitive ElectroMagnetic Stimulation (rEMS) is an innocuous method applied to modulate neurocircuits in real-time to study the physiology of the central nervous system and treat neuropsychiatric conditions. Preliminary data suggest that spinal rEMS induces behavioral changes in awake rats. However, the mechanisms behind this phenomenon remain largely unknown., Methods: Twenty-five male Wistar rats were divided into five subgroups of five animals each: one subgroup was drug-free, two subgroups received Levodopa+Benserazide 250+25mg/kg for two or seven days, and the remaining two subgroups received Haloperidol 0.1 or 0.3mg/kg for two days. The animals were restrained during sham rEMS (day 1) followed by real rEMS of the cervicothoracic region at a different day (day 2 or 7, depending on subgroup). Four behavioral parameters were quantified: Walking, Climbing, Grooming, and Cornering., Results: rEMS reduced Walking and increased Cornering duration when applied over the cervicothoracic region of drug-free animals. A pretreatment with Levodopa+Benserazide for two or seven days induced an additional decrease in Walking after rEMS. This reduction was maximum after the treatment for seven days and associated with extinction of Climbing and increase in Cornering. A pretreatment with Haloperidol 0.1mg/kg reduced Grooming after rEMS, but did not prevent the reduction in Walking., Conclusions: Cervicothoracic rEMS induced complex immobility responses that are in part modulated by dopaminergic pathways in rats. Further studies are necessary to determine the specific mechanisms involved., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The neurotrophic hypothesis postulates that mood disorders such as bipolar disorder (BD) are associated with a lower expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). However, its role in peripheral blood as a biomarker of disease activity and of stage for BD, transcending pathophysiology, is still disputed. In the last few years an increasing number of clinical studies assessing BDNF in serum and plasma have been published. Therefore, it is now possible to analyse the association between BDNF levels and the severity of affective symptoms in BD as well as the effects of acute drug treatment of mood episodes on BDNF levels., Methods: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of all studies on serum and plasma BDNF levels in bipolar disorder., Results: Through a series of meta-analyses including a total of 52 studies with 6,481 participants, we show that, compared to healthy controls, peripheral BDNF levels are reduced to the same extent in manic (Hedges' g = -0.57, P = 0.010) and depressive (Hedges' g = -0.93, P = 0.001) episodes, while BDNF levels are not significantly altered in euthymia. In meta-regression analyses, BDNF levels additionally negatively correlate with the severity of both manic and depressive symptoms. We found no evidence for a significant impact of illness duration on BDNF levels. In addition, in plasma, but not serum, peripheral BDNF levels increase after the successful treatment of an acute mania episode, but not of a depressive one., Conclusions: In summary, our data suggest that peripheral BDNF levels, more clearly in plasma than in serum, is a potential biomarker of disease activity in BD, but not a biomarker of stage. We suggest that peripheral BDNF may, in future, be used as a part of a blood protein composite measure to assess disease activity in BD.

We describe a new genus and two new species of gymnophthalmid lizards based on specimens collected from Brazilian Amazonia, mostly in the "arc of deforestation". The new genus is easily distinguished from other Gymnophthalmidae by having very wide, smooth, and imbricate nuchals, arranged in two longitudinal and 6-10 transverse rows from nape to brachium level, followed by much narrower, strongly keeled, lanceolate, and mucronate scales. It also differs from all other Gymnophthalmidae, except Iphisa, by the presence of two longitudinal rows of ventrals. The new genus differs from Iphisa by having two pairs of enlarged chinshields (one in Iphisa); posterior dorsal scales lanceolate, strongly keeled and not arranged in longitudinal rows (dorsals broad, smooth and forming two longitudinal rows), and lateral scales keeled (smooth). Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses based on morphological and molecular data indicate the new species form a clade that is most closely related to Iphisa. We also address several nomenclatural issues and present a revised classification of Gymnophthalmidae.

Background: Corticobasal syndrome (CBS) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder associated with parkinsonism and alien limb syndrome. Dressing and ideomotor apraxia were reportedly responsive to amantadine., Case Report: A 79-year-old female was referred for evaluation of right hemiparesis. Neurological examination showed dementia, normal ocular movements, mild facial hypomimia, and bradykinesia with right hemiparesis. Nine years later, she developed alien limb syndrome and was diagnosed with CBS. After failure to respond to several medications, alien limb syndrome markedly improved with amantadine., Discussion: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a consistent response of severe, forced dystonic alien limb syndrome to amantadine in a patient with CBS.

We describe two new species of Anomaloglossus from Roraima State, Brazil, that are likely endemic to single mountains currently isolated among lowland forest and savanna ecosystems. The first species, Anomaloglossus tepequem sp. nov. was collected in 1986 and 1992 along a single stream at >500 m elevation on a tepui-like mountain named Tepequém, but was not detected during recent investigations. It is mainly diagnosed from other Anomaloglossus species by its well developed foot webbing, immaculate cream abdomen colouration and small body size (males: 18.2-20.1 mm, females: 21.7-24.5). The second species, Anomaloglossus apiau sp. nov. was found along several streams between 500 and 1400 m elevation on Serra do Apiaú, and is mainly diagnosed from congeners by its weakly webbed feet, males with swollen third finger and ventrolateral stripe formed by white dots, and its advertisement call; a long trill (up to almost 40 s) consisting of pairs of very short pulses. The discovery of these two apparently microendemic species suggests that additional Anomaloglossus species remain to be described in the Guiana Shield. Both species should be considered critically endangered given their seemingly reduced range size, association with highland habitat, and the anthropogenic pressure they currently face.

Background: Bipolar spectrum disorders are frequently under-recognized and/or misdiagnosed in various settings. Several influential publications recommend the routine screening of bipolar disorder. A systematic review and meta-analysis of accuracy studies for the bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale (BSDS), the hypomania checklist (HCL-32) and the mood disorder questionnaire (MDQ) were performed., Methods: The Pubmed, EMBASE, Cochrane, PsycINFO and SCOPUS databases were searched. Studies were included if the accuracy properties of the screening measures were determined against a DSM or ICD-10 structured diagnostic interview. The QUADAS-2 tool was used to rate bias., Results: Fifty three original studies met inclusion criteria (N=21,542). At recommended cutoffs, summary sensitivities were 81%, 66% and 69%, while specificities were 67%, 79% and 86% for the HCL-32, MDQ, and BSDS in psychiatric services, respectively. The HCL-32 was more accurate than the MDQ for the detection of type II bipolar disorder in mental health care centers (P=0.018). At a cutoff of 7, the MDQ had a summary sensitivity of 43% and a summary specificity of 95% for detection of bipolar disorder in primary care or general population settings., Limitations: Most studies were performed in mental health care settings. Several included studies had a high risk of bias., Conclusions: Although accuracy properties of the three screening instruments did not consistently differ in mental health care services, the HCL-32 was more accurate than the MDQ for the detection of type II BD. More studies in other settings (for example, in primary care) are necessary., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Adiponectin, leptin and resistin may play a role in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). However, differences in peripheral levels of these hormones are inconsistent across diagnostic and intervention studies. Therefore, we performed meta-analyses of diagnostic studies (i.e., MDD subjects versus healthy controls) and intervention investigations (i.e., pre-vs. post-antidepressant treatment) in MDD. Adiponectin (N = 1278; Hedge's g = -0.35; P = 0.16) and leptin (N = 893; Hedge's g = -0.018; P = 0.93) did not differ across diagnostic studies. Meta-regression analyses revealed that gender and depression severity explained the heterogeneity observed in adiponectin diagnostic studies, while BMI and the difference in BMI between MDD individuals and controls explained the heterogeneity of leptin diagnostic studies. Subgroup analyses revealed that adiponectin peripheral levels were significantly lower in MDD participants compared to controls when assayed with RIA, but not ELISA. Leptin levels were significantly higher in individuals with mild/moderate depression versus controls. Resistin serum levels were lower in MDD individuals compared to healthy controls (N = 298; Hedge's g = -0.25; P = 0.03). Leptin serum levels did not change after antidepressant treatment. However, heterogeneity was significant and sample size was low (N = 108); consequently meta-regression analysis could not be performed. Intervention meta-analyses could not be performed for adiponectin and resistin (i.e., few studies met inclusion criteria). In conclusion, this systematic review and meta-analysis underscored that relevant moderators/confounders (e.g., BMI, depression severity and type of assay) should be controlled for when considering the role of leptin and adiponectin as putative MDD diagnostic biomarkers., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A new species of Riama lizard from the western slopes of the Andes in northern Ecuador is described herein. Morphologically, Riama yumborum sp. nov. can be distinguished from all other congenerics by having an incomplete nasoloreal suture and a cylindrical hemipenial body with diagonally orientated flounces on its lateral aspect. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA support the monophyly of the new species and its sister taxon relationship with R. labionis, which occurs allopatrically.

Background: A diagnosis of colorectal cancer (CRC) and its long-term treatment may lead to significant psychological distress and impaired health-related quality of life (HRQoL) for a significant proportion of patients., Methods: We searched the PubMed/MEDLINE electronic database for available literature on the associations between personality characteristics, depression, psychological distress and HRQoL in CRC. Additional references were identified through the citation tracking of the included articles., Results: Recent evidence indicates that Type-D (distressed) personality may predict distress among CRC patients. Additionally, other personality traits, such as specific ego defense mechanisms, influence the coping responses and HRQoL. Although the presence of a stoma has been linked to the development of depressive symptoms and impairment in HRQoL in CRC patients, more prospective studies are necessary to confirm these associations. Sense of coherence (SOC) has both a moderating and mediating effect on health (especially mental health and HRQoL), and preliminary data indicate that SOC may be an independent predictor of CRC survival., Conclusions: The interplay between personality variables during the elaboration of "the impaired role" is complex, and the assessment of personality traits may be incorporated into a comprehensive psychosomatic evaluation of CRC patients. More well-designed prospective investigations are necessary to establish the contributory role of personality dimensions for the development of and protection from distress and impairment in the HRQoL of CRC patients, which could eventually lead to the development of psychosocial interventions that are personalized to this patient population (for example, manual-based psychotherapies)., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: While women with breast cancer often face varying levels of psychological distress, there is a subgroup whose symptomatology reaches a threshold for diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD). Major depressive disorder is known to influence patient outcomes, such as health-related quality of life and treatment adherence. There are no systematic reviews that evaluate pharmacological and psychotherapeutic treatment trials for MDD among individuals with breast cancer., Methods: Two authors independently searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane and Clinical Trials.gov databases through February 20, 2013 without language restrictions. Core journals, reference lists and citation tracking were also searched. Articles on breast cancer patients were included if they (1) included participants with a diagnosis of MDD; (2) investigated pharmacological or psychotherapeutic treatments for MDD compared to placebo or usual care in a randomized controlled trial (RCT)., Results: Two RCTs on antidepressant treatment met inclusion criteria. However, no RCTs investigating the effects of psychological treatments for MDD in breast cancer were identified. Notwithstanding the paucity of data investigating the effects of psychological treatments for MDD in breast cancer, numerous psychotherapeutic strategies targeting depressive symptoms were identified. Mianserin had significant antidepressant effects when compared to placebo in a 6-week, parallel-group, RCT of Stage I-II breast cancer in women with MDD. Desipramine and paroxetine were reported to be no more efficacious than placebo in a 6-week, RCT of Stage I-IV breast cancer in women with MDD., Conclusions: The evidence reviewed herein underscores the paucity of data available to guide clinicians in treatment decisions for MDD in individuals with breast cancer. Therefore, the treatment of MDD in breast cancer is primarily based on clinical experience. Some antidepressants (for example, paroxetine) should be avoided in women concurrently taking tamoxifen due to relevant interactions involving the cytochrome CYP2D6., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The anatomy and development of the eyelids in squamate reptiles are still relatively unknown, considering its variation within the group. The neotropical Gymnophthalmini are traditionally characterized by having lost the eyelids, but their structure is not well described. In this study, the embryonic development and the adult morphology of the gymnophthalmid eye, with special attention to the eyelids, the nictitating membrane, and the spectacle are described. The eye in some Gymnophthalmini is covered by a spectacle, formed by the embryonic fusion of the dorsal and ventral eyelids, a character possibly synapomorphic to the tribe. The genus Tretioscincus, which floats either as sister to all other Gymnophthalmini, or is nested within the group, is unique in showing functional and movable eyelids. Thus, the presence of functional eyelids can be either considered as the primitive condition for the gymnophthalmini or as a re-acquisition of the character, showing the importance of a well-established phylogenetic hypothesis for understanding morphological evolution., (Copyright © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with cognitive dysfunction encompassing several domains, including memory, executive function, processing speed and attention. Cognitive deficits persist in a significant proportion of patients even in remission, compromising psychosocial functioning and workforce performance. While monoaminergic antidepressants may improve cognitive performance in MDD, most antidepressants have limited clinical efficacy. The overarching aims of this review were: (1) to synthesize extant literature on putative biological pathways related to cognitive dysfunction in MDD and (2) to review novel neurotherapeutic targets for cognitive enhancement in MDD. We found that reciprocal and overlapping biological pathways may contribute to cognitive dysfunction in MDD, including an hyperactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, an increase in oxidative and nitrosative stress, inflammation (e.g., enhanced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines), mitochondrial dysfunction, increased apoptosis as well as a diminished neurotrophic support. Several promising neurotherapeutic targets were identified such as minocycline, statins, anti-inflammatory compounds, N-acetylcysteine, omega-3 poliunsaturated fatty acids, erythropoietin, thiazolidinediones, glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues, S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe), cocoa flavonols, creatine monohydrate and lithium. Erythropoietin and SAMe had pro-cognitive effects in randomized controlled trials (RCT) involving MDD patients. Despite having preclinical and/or preliminary evidences from trials suggesting possible efficacy as novel cognitive enhancing agents for MDD, no RCT to date was performed for most of the other therapeutic targets reviewed herein. In conclusion, multiple biological pathways are involved in cognitive dysfunction in MDD. RCTs testing genuinely novel pro-cognitive compounds for MDD are warranted.

Objective: To investigate the use of quantitative EEG (qEEG) in patients with acute encephalopathies (AEs) and EEG background abnormalities., Method: Patients were divided into favorable outcome (group A, 43 patients) and an unfavorable outcome (group B, 5 patients). EEGLAB software was used for the qEEG analysis. A graphic of the spectral power from all channels was generated for each participant. Statistical comparisons between the groups were performed., Results: In group A, spectral analysis revealed spectral peaks (theta and alpha frequency bands) in 84% (38/45) of the patients. In group B, a spectral peak in the delta frequency range was detected in one patient. The remainder of the patients in both groups did not present spectral peaks. Statistical analysis showed lower frequencies recorded from the posterior electrodes in group B patients., Conclusion: qEEG may be useful in the evaluations of patients with AEs by assisting with the prognostic determination.

More than a century after its discovery by Ernest Garbe, and almost 80 years after its original description, we obtained a series of specimens of the earless gymnophthalmid Anotosaura collaris, the type species of the genus, up to now known only by a single specimen. On the basis of the material obtained at and close to the type locality we redescribe the species, adding information about the external and hemipenial morphology, osteology and karytoype. Molecular data confirm its sister relationship with Anotosaura vanzolinia as well as the close relationship of Anotosaura with the Ecpleopodini Colobosauroides and Dryadosaura. We supplement this information with thermophysiological, ecogeographical, karyotypic and ecological data.

Preliminary data suggest that defensive profile of hemodialysis (HD) patients might influence adaptation to the disease. However, the association of defense mechanisms with health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of HD patients remains unknown. In this cross-sectional investigation, 170 HD patients and 170 age- and sex-matched healthy participants had their psychological profile assessed with the Defense Style Questionnaire-40 and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Furthermore, the HD patients had their HRQoL measured with the World Health Organization Quality of Life instrument-abbreviated version. The HD patients had a more neurotic and immature defensive profile. Splitting, projection, reaction formation, and denial were significantly associated with impaired HRQoL, independent of psychological distress. Somatization was an independent correlate of worse overall and physical HRQoL. These findings suggest that, apart from the treatment of psychological distress symptoms, clinicians should also consider the defensive profile of HD patients because it is independently associated with HRQoL and may be amenable to treatment.

A new species of Bachia of the B. dorbignyi group, Bachia scaea sp. nov., is described from the left bank of the upper Madeira River, at Rondônia state, at the western Brazilian Amazonia. The new species resembles morphologically B. dorbignyi and B. peruana, and seems to be related with the former species based on molecular data (16S and c-mos sequences). Nonetheless the presence of a first temporal separating parietal and supralabial scales and the absence of clawed fingers in the new species, can promptly distinguish it from their close relatives. This description ends with several-decades of stasis in the taxonomy of the Bachia dorbignyi group from Amazonian lowlands, and also presents new evidence that supports the Madeira River as a vicariant barrier.

Potamitesflavogularis sp. nov. is described from the Napo and Tungurahua Provinces around 1800 m elevation in eastern Ecuador. The new species is closely related, sibling, and sympatric to Potamites cochranae to which it has been previously confused. It is characterized by the absence of isolated basal flounces of spines and presence of calcareous spinules on flounces of the hemipenis, a short (1,30-1,41 times SVL) and slightly compressed tail without tubercles, tympanum slightly recessed, subimbricate ventral scales, lateral body scales lacking conspicuous enlarged tubercles, four longitudinal rows of dorsal tubercles, 6 transverse series of ventral scales, absence of intercalated scales along sides of tail, and absence of tubercles on sides of neck and gular regions. Like their congeners, the new species was found close to vegetation surrounding streams in primary and secondary forests.

Prenatal immune challenge (PIC) in pregnant rodents produces offspring with abnormalities in behavior, histology, and gene expression that are reminiscent of schizophrenia and autism. Based on this, the goal of this article was to review the main contributions of PIC models, especially the one using the viral-mimetic particle polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid (poly-I:C), to the understanding of the etiology, biological basis and treatment of schizophrenia. This systematic review consisted of a search of available web databases (PubMed, SciELO, LILACS, PsycINFO, and ISI Web of Knowledge) for original studies published in the last 10 years (May 2001 to October 2011) concerning animal models of PIC, focusing on those using poly-I:C. The results showed that the PIC model with poly-I:C is able to mimic the prodrome and both the positive and negative/cognitive dimensions of schizophrenia, depending on the specific gestation time window of the immune challenge. The model resembles the neurobiology and etiology of schizophrenia and has good predictive value. In conclusion, this model is a robust tool for the identification of novel molecular targets during prenatal life, adolescence and adulthood that might contribute to the development of preventive and/or treatment strategies (targeting specific symptoms, i.e., positive or negative/cognitive) for this devastating mental disorder, also presenting biosafety as compared to viral infection models. One limitation of this model is the incapacity to model the full spectrum of immune responses normally induced by viral exposure.

Diabetes mellitus is the most common disease in the world. One therapeutic approach for treating diabetes is inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities to reduce postprandial blood glucose levels. In vitro tests showed that several plant extracts from Brazilian cerrado species can inhibit the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase. The extracts of Eugenia dysenterica, Stryphnodendron adstringens, Pouteria caimito, Pouteria ramiflora, and Pouteria torta showed strong α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Eugenia dysenterica, P. caimito, P. ramiflora, and P. torta aqueous extracts exerted the highest activity against α-amylase (IC₅₀) values of 14.93, 13.6, 7.08, and 5.67 µg/mL, respectively) and α-glucosidase (IC₅₀ values of 0.46, 2.58, 0.35, and 0.22 µg/mL, respectively). Stryphnodendron adstringens ethanol extract also exhibited inhibitory activity against both enzymes (IC₅₀) 1.86 µg/mL against α-amylase and 0.61 µg/mL against α-glucosidase). The results suggest that the activity of these cerrado plants on α-amylase and α-glucosidase represents a potential tool for development of new strategies for treatment of diabetes., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Inhibition of α-amylase, enzyme that plays a role in digestion of starch and glycogen, is considered a strategy for the treatment of disorders in carbohydrate uptake, such as diabetes and obesity, as well as, dental caries and periodontal diseases. Plants are an important source of chemical constituents with potential for inhibition of α-amylase and can be used as therapeutic or functional food sources. A review about crude extracts and isolated compounds from plant source that have been tested for α-amylase inhibitory activity has been done. The analysis of the results shows a variety of crude extracts that present α-amylase inhibitory activity and some of them had relevant activity when compared with controls used in the studies. Amongst the phyto-constituents that have been investigated, flavonoids are one of them that demonstrated the highest inhibitory activities with the potential of inhibition related to number of hydroxyl groups in the molecule of the compound. Several phyto-constituents and plant species as α-amylase inhibitors are being reported in this article. Majority of studies have focused on the anti-amylase phenolic compounds.

Oropharyngeal carriage of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is associated with increased risk of infection and may provide a source for spread of drug-resistant strains. In order to assess the incidence and risk factors of oropharyngeal carriage, we conducted a retrospective cohort study based on results of surveillance cultures (oropharyngeal swabs) from a medical-surgical intensive care unit, collected from March 2005 through May 2006. Variables investigated included demographic characteristics, comorbid conditions, invasive procedures, use of devices and use of antimicrobials. Thirty case patients with P. aeruginosa carriage were identified. Other 84 patients with surveillance cultures negative to P. aeruginosa were enrolled as control subjects. Case patients were more likely to have a solid malignancy (Odds Ratio [OR] = 12.04, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] = 1.93-75.09, p=0.008), Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS, OR = 7.09, 95% CI= 1.11-45.39, p = 0.04), central nervous system disease (OR = 4.51, 95% CI = 1.52-13.39, p = 0.007), or to have a central venous catheter placed (OR = 7.76, 95% CI = 1.68-35.79, p=0.009). The use of quinolones was a protective factor (OR = 0.13, 95% CI = 0.03-0.47, p = 0.002). The predominance of comorbidities as risk factors points out a group of patients to whom preventive measures should be directed.