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The mass-size relation is a fundamental galaxy scaling law closely tied to galaxy formation and evolution. Using added-value products of the Calar Alto Void Integral-field Treasury surveY (CAVITY) and SDSS DR16 images, we examine the effect of large-scale environments on the stellar mass-size relation. We analyse the Petrosian R50 and R90 radii of approximately 140000 galaxies in voids, filaments, and clusters, with a mass range of $10^{8.5} - 10^{11} M_{\odot}$. We explore the relation in terms of galaxy morphology and star formation history, parametrised by T50, T70, and T90. We find that early-type void galaxies are, on average, 10-20% smaller than their counterparts in denser environments, regardless of their mass assembly history. Moreover, the mass-size relation for massive early-type void galaxies has a shallower slope compared to those in denser regions. In contrast, early-type galaxies in filaments, and clusters show a more uniform mass-size relation. Late-type cluster galaxies with stellar masses $log(M_{\star} / M_{\odot}) = 9 - 10.5$ are smaller and more concentrated than their counterparts in lower-density environments, such as filaments, and voids. We conclude that large-scale environments influence the mass-size relation. Early-type galaxies appear to grow most of their mass during the initial formation phase. Subsequent size growth in voids is less significant, likely due to slower evolution, reduced minor merger activity, fewer accretion events, or a combination. The flatter slope for massive void galaxies indicates a lower rate of minor accretion, a trend also observed in late-type void galaxies with $\approx 10^{10.5} M_{\odot}$, where minor mergers contribute to size growth. Conversely, late-type quenched cluster galaxies are smaller due to environmental interactions, with early infallers being most affected., Comment: 12 pages. Paper accepted for publication in A&A

We report, for the first time, the detection of a sample of quenched and isolated dwarf galaxies (with 8.9 $<$ log(M$_{\rm \star}$/M$_{\rm \odot}$) $<$ 9.5) in the least dense regions of the cosmic web, including voids, filaments, and walls. These dwarfs have no neighbouring galaxy within 1.0~Mpc in projected distance. Based on the full spectral fitting of their central spectra using Sloan Digital Sky Survey data, these galaxies are gas-deprived, exhibit stellar mass assembly very similar to dwarfs in the central regions of galaxy clusters, and have experienced no significant star formation in the past 2 Gyr. Additionally, analysis of r-band images from the Dark Energy Camera Legacy Survey showed that these dwarf galaxies host a central Nuclear Star Cluster (NSC). Detecting quenched, isolated dwarf galaxies in cosmic voids indicates that environmental factors are not the sole drivers of their quenching. Internal mechanisms, such as feedback from in-situ star formation, also contributing to the NSC formation, black holes, or variations in conditions during their formation, offer potential explanations for star formation suppression in these galaxies. These findings highlight the need for a significant revision in our understanding of baryonic physics, particularly concerning the formation and evolution of low-mass galaxies., Comment: 9 pages, 5 figures, accepted as a Letter to the Editor in Astronomy & Astrophysics

Bars are remarkable stellar structures that can transport gas toward centers and drive the secular evolution of galaxies. In this context, it is important to locate dynamical resonances associated with bars. For this study, we used ${Spitzer}$ near-infrared images as a proxy for the stellar gravitational potential and the ALMA CO(J=2-1) gas distribution from the PHANGS survey to determine the position of the main dynamical resonances associated with the bars in the PHANGS sample of 74 nearby star-forming galaxies. We used the gravitational torque method to estimate the location of the bar corotation radius ($R_{\rm CR}$), where stars and gas rotate at the same angular velocity as the bar. Of the 46 barred galaxies in PHANGS, we have successfully determined the corotation (CR) for 38 of them. The mean ratio of the $R_{\rm CR}$ to the bar radius ($R_{\rm bar}$) is $\mathcal{R} = R_{\rm CR}/R_{\rm bar} = 1.12$, with a standard deviation of $0.39$. This is consistent with the average value expected from theory and suggests that bars are predominantly fast. We also compared our results with other bar CR measurements from the literature, which employ different methods, and find good agreement ($\rho = 0.64$). Finally, using rotation curves, we have estimated other relevant resonances such as the inner Lindblad resonance (ILR) and the outer Lindblad resonance (OLR), which are often associated with rings. This work provides a useful catalog of resonances for a large sample of nearby galaxies and emphasizes the clear connection between bar dynamics and morphology.

The Calar Alto Void Integral-field Treasury surveY (CAVITY) is a legacy project aimed at characterising the population of galaxies inhabiting voids, which are the most under-dense regions of the cosmic web, located in the Local Universe. This paper describes the first public data release (DR1) of CAVITY, comprising science-grade optical data cubes for the initial 100 out of a total of $\sim$300 galaxies in the Local Universe ($0.005 < z < 0.050$). These data were acquired using the integral-field spectrograph PMAS/PPak mounted on the 3.5m telescope at the Calar Alto observatory. The DR1 galaxy sample encompasses diverse characteristics in the color-magnitude space, morphological type, stellar mass, and gas ionisation conditions, providing a rich resource for addressing key questions in galaxy evolution through spatially resolved spectroscopy. The galaxies in this study were observed with the low-resolution V500 set-up, spanning the wavelength range 3745-7500 \AA, with a spectral resolution of 6.0 \AA\ (FWHM). Here, we describe the data reduction and characteristics and data structure of the CAVITY datasets essential for their scientific utilisation, highlighting such concerns as vignetting effects, as well as the identification of bad pixels and management of spatially correlated noise. We also provide instructions for accessing the CAVITY datasets and associated ancillary data through the project's dedicated database., Comment: 17 pages, 9 figures, 5 tables. Accepted for publication in A&A (replacement after minor language edits)

We aim to investigate how the local environment influences the star formation history (SFH) of galaxies residing in various large-scale environments. We categorise a sample of 9384 galaxies into the three primary large scale structures (voids, walls \& filaments, and clusters) and further classify them based on their local environment (as either "singlets" or group members), through a search of companion galaxies within sky-projected distances $\Delta r_p < 0.45$ Mpc and velocity differences $\Delta v < 160$ $\text{km s}^{-1}$. Subsequently, we explore these subsamples through SFH data from previous works. Throughout the study, galaxies are divided into long-timescale SFH galaxies (LT-SFH), which assemble their mass steadily along cosmic time, and short-timescale SFH galaxies (ST-SFH), which form their stars early. We then compare characteristic mass assembly look-back times. The distributions of mass assembly look-back times in ST-SFH galaxies are statistically different for singlets and groups. These differences are only found in LT-SFH galaxies when studying these distributions in stellar mass bins. Our results indicate that the large-scale environment is related to a delay in mass assembly of up to $\sim$2 Gyr, while this delay is $<$1 Gyr in the case of local environment. The effect of both kinds of environment is more significant in less massive galaxies, and in LT-SFHs. Our results are consistent with galaxies in groups assembling their stellar mass earlier than singlets, especially in voids and lower mass galaxies. Local environment plays a relevant role in stellar mass assembly times, although we find that large-scale structures also cause a delay in mass assembly, more so in the case of cluster galaxies., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A

Neutral atomic gas (HI) effectively traces galactic dynamics across mid to large galactocentric radii. However, its limitations in observing small-scale changes within the central few kiloparsecs, coupled with the often observed HI deficit in galactic centers, necessitates using molecular gas emission as a preferred tracer in these regions. Understanding the dynamics of both neutral atomic and molecular gas is crucial for a more complete understanding of how galaxies evolve, funnel gas from the outer disk into their central parts, and eventually form stars. In this work we aim to quantify the dynamics of both, the neutral atomic and molecular gas, in the nearby spiral galaxies NGC 1512, NGC 4535, and NGC 7496 using new MeerKAT-HI observations together with ALMA CO (2-1) observations from the PHANGS collaboration. We use the analysis tool 3D-Barolo to fit tilted ring models to the HI and CO observations. A combined approach of using the HI to constrain the true disk orientation parameters before applying these to the CO datasets is tested. This paper sets expectations for the results of the upcoming high-resolution HI coverage of many galaxies in the PHANGS-ALMA sample using MeerKAT or VLA, to establish a robust methodology for characterizing galaxy orientations and deriving dynamics from combining new HI with existing CO data., Comment: accepted for publication in A&A; 13 pages, 9 Figures (+2 appendix pages)

The WHT Enhanced Area Velocity Explorer (WEAVE) is a new, massively multiplexing spectrograph. This new instrument will be exploited to obtain high S/N spectra of $\sim$25000 galaxies at intermediate redshifts for the WEAVE Stellar Population Survey (WEAVE-StePS). We test machine learning methods for retrieving the key physical parameters of galaxies from WEAVE-StePS-like spectra using both photometric and spectroscopic information at various S/Ns and redshifts. We simulated $\sim$105000 galaxy spectra assuming SFH with an exponentially declining star formation rate, covering a wide range of ages, stellar metallicities, sSFRs, and dust extinctions. We then evaluated the ability of the random forest and KNN algorithms to correctly predict such parameters assuming no measurement errors. We checked how much the predictive ability deteriorates for different S/Ns and redshifts, finding that both algorithms still accurately estimate the ages and metallicities with low bias. The dispersion varies from 0.08-0.16 dex for ages and 0.11-0.25 dex for metallicity, depending on the redshift and S/N. For dust attenuation, we find a similarly low bias and dispersion. For the sSFR, we find a very good constraining power for star-forming galaxies, log sSFR$\gtrsim$ -11, where the bias is $\sim$ 0.01 dex and the dispersion is $\sim$ 0.10 dex. For more quiescent galaxies, with log sSFR$\lesssim$ -11, we find a higher bias, 0.61-0.86 dex, and a higher dispersion, $\sim$ 0.4 dex, for different S/Ns and redshifts. Generally, we find that the RF outperforms the KNN. Finally, the retrieved sSFR was used to successfully classify galaxies as part of the blue cloud, green valley, or red sequence. We demonstrate that machine learning algorithms can accurately estimate the physical parameters of simulated galaxies even at relatively low S/N=10 per angstrom spectra with available ancillary photometric information., Comment: 19 pages, 10 + 2 figures, 4 tables, accepted in A&A

Spiral arms are some of the most spectacular features in disc galaxies, and also present in our own Milky Way. It has been argued that star formation should proceed more efficiently in spiral arms as a result of gas compression. Yet, observational studies have so far yielded contradictory results. Here we examine arm/interarm surface density contrasts at ~100 pc resolution in 28 spiral galaxies from the PHANGS survey. We find that the arm/interarm contrast in stellar mass surface density (Sigma_*) is very modest, typically a few tens of percent. This is much smaller than the contrasts measured for molecular gas (Sigma_mol) or star formation rate (Sigma_SFR) surface density, which typically reach a factor of ~2-3. Yet, Sigma_mol and Sigma_SFR contrasts show a significant correlation with the enhancement in Sigma_*, suggesting that the small stellar contrast largely dictates the stronger accumulation of gas and star formation. All these contrasts increase for grand-design spirals compared to multi-armed and flocculent systems (and for galaxies with high stellar mass). The median star formation efficiency (SFE) of the molecular gas is 16% higher in spiral arms than in interarm regions, with a large scatter, and the contrast increases significantly (median SFE contrast 2.34) for regions of particularly enhanced stellar contrast (Sigma_* contrast >1.97). The molecular-to-atomic gas ratio (Sigma_mol/Sigma_atom) is higher in spiral arms, pointing to a transformation of atomic to molecular gas. In conclusion, the boost in the star formation efficiency of molecular gas in spiral arms is generally modest or absent, except for locations with exceptionally large stellar contrasts. (abridged), Comment: 26 pages, 16 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A

We have learnt in the last decades that the majority of galaxies belong to high density regions interconnected in a sponge-like fashion. This large-scale structure is characterised by clusters, filaments, walls, where most galaxies concentrate, but also under-dense regions, called voids. The void regions and the galaxies within represent an ideal place for the study of galaxy formation and evolution as they are largely unaffected by the complex physical processes that transform galaxies in high-density environments. These void galaxies can hold the key as well to answer current challenges to the $\Lambda$CDM paradigm. The Calar Alto Void Integral-field Treasury surveY (CAVITY) is a Legacy project approved by the Calar Alto Observatory to obtain spatially resolved spectroscopic information of $\sim300$ void galaxies in the Local Universe (0.005 < z < 0.050) covering from -17.0 to -21.5 in $\rm r$ band absolute magnitude. It officially started in January 2021 and has been awarded 110 useful dark observing nights at the 3.5 m telescope using the PMAS spectrograph. Complementary follow-up projects including deep optical imaging, integrated, as well as resolved CO data, and integrated HI spectra, have joint the PMAS observations and naturally complete the scientific aim of characterising galaxies in cosmic voids. The extension data has been denominated CAVITY+. The data will be available to the whole community in different data releases, the first of which is planned for July 2024, and it will provide the community with PMAS data cubes for around 100 void galaxies through a user friendly, and well documented, database platform. We present here the survey, sample selection, data reduction, quality control schemes, science goals, and some examples of the scientific power of the CAVITY and CAVITY+ data., Comment: 19 pages, 11 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A - Replacement after A&A minor language edition

Bars drive gas inflow. As the gas flows inwards, shocks and shear occur along the bar dust lanes. Such shocks and shear can affect the star formation and change the gas properties. For four barred galaxies, we present H{\alpha} velocity gradient maps that highlight bar-driven shocks and shear using data from the PHANGS-MUSE and PHANGS-ALMA surveys which allow us to study bar kinematics in unprecedented detail. Velocity gradients are enhanced along the bar dust lanes, where shocks and shear are shown to occur in numerical simulations. Velocity gradient maps also efficiently pick up expanding shells around HII regions. We put pseudo slits on the regions where velocity gradients are enhanced and find that H{\alpha} and CO velocities jump up to ~170 km/s, even after removing the effects of circular motions due to the galaxy rotation. Enhanced velocity gradients either coincide with the peak of CO intensity along the bar dust lanes or are slightly offset from CO intensity peaks, depending on the objects. Using the BPT diagnostic, we identify the source of ionization on each spaxel and find that star formation is inhibited in the high velocity gradient regions of the bar, and the majority of those regions are classified as LINER or composite. This implies that star formation is inhibited where bar-driven shear and shocks are strong. Our results are consistent with the results from the numerical simulations that show star formation is inhibited in the bar where shear force is strong., Comment: 26 pages, Accepted for publication in ApJ

The Universe is shaped as a web-like structure, formed by clusters, filaments, and walls that leave large volumes in between named voids. Galaxies in voids have been found to be of a later type, bluer, less massive, and to have a slower evolution than galaxies in denser environments (filaments and walls). However, the effect of the void environment on their stellar population properties is still unclear. We aim to address this question using 118 optical integral field unit datacubes from the Calar Alto Void Integral-field Treasury surveY (CAVITY), observed with the PMAS/PPaK spectrograph at the 3.5m telescope at the Calar Alto Observatory (Almer\'ia, Spain). We used the non-parametric full spectral fitting code STARLIGHT to estimate their stellar population properties: stellar mass, stellar mass surface density, age, star formation rate (SFR), and specific star formation rate (sSFR). We analysed the results through the global and spatially resolved properties. Then, we compared them with a control sample of galaxies in filaments and walls from the CALIFA survey, matched in stellar mass and morphological type. Key findings include void galaxies having a slightly higher half-light radius (HLR), lower stellar mass surface density, and younger ages across all morphological types, and slightly elevated SFR and sSFR (only significant enough for Sas). Many of these differences appear in the outer parts of spiral galaxies in voids (HLR > 1), which are younger and exhibit a higher sSFR, indicative of less evolved discs. This trend is also found for early-type spirals, suggesting a slower transition from star-forming to quiescent states in voids. Our analysis indicates that void galaxies, influenced by their surroundings, undergo a more gradual evolution, especially in their outer regions, with a more pronounced effect for low-mass galaxies., Comment: 24 pages, 22 figures, 5 tables. Accepted for publication in A&A. Updated references list

The debate about the universality of the stellar initial mass function (IMF) revolves around two competing lines of evidence. While measurements in the Milky Way, an archetypal spiral galaxy, seem to support an invariant IMF, the observed properties of massive early-type galaxies (ETGs) favor an IMF somehow sensitive to the local star formation conditions. The fundamental methodological and physical differences between both approaches have hampered, however, a comprehensive understanding of IMF variations. We describe here an improved modelling scheme that allows for the first time consistent IMF measurements across stellar populations with different ages and complex star formation histories. Making use of the exquisite MUSE optical data from the TIMER survey and powered by the MILES stellar population models, we show the age, metallicity, [Mg/Fe], and IMF slope maps of the inner regions of NGC 3351, a spiral galaxy with a mass similar to that of the Milky Way. The measured IMF values in NGC3351 follow the expectations from a Milky Way-like IMF, although they simultaneously show systematic and spatially coherent variations, particularly for low-mass stars. In addition, our stellar population analysis reveals the presence of metal-poor and Mg-enhanced star-forming regions that appear to be predominantly enriched by the stellar ejecta of core-collapse supernovae. Our findings showcase therefore the potential of detailed studies of young stellar populations to better understand the early stages of galaxy evolution and, in particular, the origin of the observed IMF variations beyond and within the Milky Way., Comment: 16 pages, 11 figures. Accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics

Understanding the gas content in galaxies, its consumption and replenishment, remains pivotal in our comprehension of the evolution of the Universe. Numerous studies have addressed this, utilizing various observational tools and analytical methods. These include examining low-transition $^{12}$CO millimeter rotational lines and exploring the far-infrared and the (sub-)millimeter emission of galaxies. With the capabilities of present-day facilities, much of this research has been centered on relatively bright galaxies. We aim at exploring the gas reservoirs of a more general type of galaxy population at $1.0\leq z\leq 3.0$. We stack ALMA 1.1 mm data to measure the gas content of a mass-complete sample down to $\sim10^{8.6}$ M$_\odot$ at $z=1$ ($\sim10^{9.2}$ M$_\odot$ at $z=3$), extracted from the HST/CANDELS sample in GOODS-S. The sample is composed of 5,530 on average blue ($\sim0.12$ mag, $\sim0.81$ mag), star-forming main sequence objects ($\Delta$MS$\sim-0.03$). We report measurements at $10^{10-11}$ M$_\odot$ and upper limits for the gas fractions at $10^{8-10}$ M$_\odot$. At $10^{10-11}$ M$_\odot$, our f$_{\mathrm{gas}}$, ranging from 0.32 to 0.48, agree well with other studies based on mass-complete samples down to $10^{10}$ M$_\odot$, and are lower than expected according to other works more biased to individual detections. At $10^{9-10}$ M$_\odot$, we obtain 3$\sigma$ upper limits for f$_{\mathrm{gas}}$ ranging from 0.69 to 0.77. These upper limits are on the level of the extrapolations of scaling relations based on mass-complete samples down to $10^{10}$ M$_\odot$. As such, it suggests that the gas content of low-mass galaxies is at most what is extrapolated from literature scaling relations. The comparison of our results with previous works reflects how the inclusion of bluer, less obscured, and more MS-like objects progressively pushes the gas level to lower values., Comment: 18 pages, 8 figures, 4 tables. Accepted for publication in A&A

Void galaxies are essential for understanding the physical processes that drive galaxy evolution because they are less affected by external factors than galaxies in denser environments, that is, in filaments, walls, and clusters. The stellar metallicity of a galaxy traces the accumulated fossil record of the star formation through the entire life of the galaxy. A comparison of the stellar metallicity of galaxies in various environments, including voids, filaments, walls, and clusters can provide valuable insights into how the large-scale environment affects the chemical evolution of the galaxy. We present the first comparison of the relation of the total stellar mass versus central stellar metallicity between galaxies in voids, filaments, walls, and clusters with different star formation history (SFH) types, morphologies, and colours for stellar masses between $10^{8.0}$ to $10^{11.5}$ solar masses and redshift $0.01

Galaxies are expected to accrete pristine gas from their surroundings to sustain their star formation over cosmic timescales. Its lower abundance affects the metallicity of the ISM in which stars are born, leaving chemical imprints in the stellar populations. We measure the amount of pristine gas that galaxies accrete during their lifetime, using information on the ages and abundances of their stellar populations and a chemical evolution model. We also aim to determine the efficiency of star formation over time. We derived star formation histories and metallicity histories for a sample of 8523 galaxies from the MaNGA survey. We use the former to predict the evolution of the metallicity in a closed-box scenario, and estimate for each epoch the gas accretion rate required to match these predictions with the measured stellar metallicity. Using only chemical parameters, we find that the history of gas accretion depends on the mass of galaxies. More massive galaxies accrete more gas and at higher redshifts than less massive galaxies, which accrete their gas over longer periods. We also find that galaxies with a higher star formation rate at z = 0 have a more persistent accretion history for a given mass. The star formation efficiency shows similar correlations: early-type galaxies and higher-mass galaxies had a higher efficiency in the past, and it declined such that they are less efficient in the present. Our analysis of individual galaxies shows that compactness affects the peak star formation efficiency that galaxies reach, and that the slope of the efficiency history of galaxies with current star formation is flat. Our results support the hypothesis that a steady and substantial supply of pristine gas is required for persistent star formation in galaxies. Once they lose access to this gas supply, star formation comes to a halt., Comment: 17 pages, 11 figures. Accepted at A&A

The upcoming generation of optical spectrographs on four meter-class telescopes, with their huge multiplexing capabilities, excellent spectral resolution, and unprecedented wavelength coverage, will provide high-quality spectra for thousands of galaxies. These data will allow us to examine of the stellar population properties at intermediate redshift, an epoch that remains unexplored by large and deep surveys. We assess our capability to retrieve the mean stellar metallicity in galaxies at different redshifts and S/N, while simultaneously exploiting the UV and optical rest-frame wavelength coverage. The work is based on a comprehensive library of spectral templates of stellar populations, covering a wide range of age and metallicity values and built assuming various SFHs. We simulated realistic observations of a large sample of galaxies carried out with WEAVE at the WHT at different redshifts and S/N values. We measured all the reliable indices on the simulated spectra and on the comparison library. We then adopted a Bayesian approach to obtain the probability distribution of stellar metallicity. The analysis of the spectral indices has shown how some mid-UV indices can provide reliable constraints on stellar metallicity, along with optical indicators. The analysis of the mock observations has shown that even at S/N=10, the metallicity can be derived within 0.3 dex, in particular, for stellar populations older than 2 Gyr. Our results are in good agreement with other theoretical and observational works in the literature and show how the UV indicators can be advantageous in constraining metallicities. This is very promising for the upcoming surveys carried out with new, highly multiplexed, large-field spectrographs, such as StePS at the WEAVE and 4MOST, which will provide spectra of thousands of galaxies covering large spectral ranges at relatively high S/N., Comment: 16 pages, 14 figures. Submitted 31/03/2023, Accepted 20/07/2023

Currently available star cluster catalogues from HST imaging of nearby galaxies heavily rely on visual inspection and classification of candidate clusters. The time-consuming nature of this process has limited the production of reliable catalogues and thus also post-observation analysis. To address this problem, deep transfer learning has recently been used to create neural network models which accurately classify star cluster morphologies at production scale for nearby spiral galaxies (D < 20 Mpc). Here, we use HST UV-optical imaging of over 20,000 sources in 23 galaxies from the Physics at High Angular Resolution in Nearby GalaxieS (PHANGS) survey to train and evaluate two new sets of models: i) distance-dependent models, based on cluster candidates binned by galaxy distance (9-12 Mpc, 14-18 Mpc, 18-24 Mpc), and ii) distance-independent models, based on the combined sample of candidates from all galaxies. We find that the overall accuracy of both sets of models is comparable to previous automated star cluster classification studies (~60-80 per cent) and show improvement by a factor of two in classifying asymmetric and multi-peaked clusters from PHANGS-HST. Somewhat surprisingly, while we observe a weak negative correlation between model accuracy and galactic distance, we find that training separate models for the three distance bins does not significantly improve classification accuracy. We also evaluate model accuracy as a function of cluster properties such as brightness, colour, and SED-fit age. Based on the success of these experiments, our models will provide classifications for the full set of PHANGS-HST candidate clusters (N ~ 200,000) for public release., Comment: 16 pages, 10 figures

Galaxies in the Universe are distributed in a web-like structure characterised by different large-scale environments: dense clusters, elongated filaments, sheetlike walls, and under-dense regions, called voids. The low density in voids is expected to affect the properties of their galaxies. Indeed, previous studies have shown that galaxies in voids are on average bluer and less massive, and have later morphologies and higher current star formation rates than galaxies in denser large-scale environments. However, it has never been observationally proved that the star formation histories (SFHs) in void galaxies are substantially different from those in filaments, walls, and clusters. Here we show that void galaxies have had, on average, slower SFHs than galaxies in denser large-scale environments. We also find two main SFH types present in all the environments: 'short-timescale' galaxies are not affected by their large-scale environment at early times but only later in their lives; 'long-timescale' galaxies have been continuously affected by their environment and stellar mass. Both types have evolved slower in voids than in filaments, walls, and clusters., Comment: Published in Nature. 27 pages, 4 Figures, 7 Extended Data Figures, and 1 Extended Data Table

Measurements of the star formation activity on cloud scales are fundamental to uncovering the physics of the molecular cloud, star formation, and stellar feedback cycle in galaxies. Infrared (IR) emission from small dust grains and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widely used to trace the obscured component of star formation. However, the relation between these emission features and dust attenuation is complicated by the combined effects of dust heating from old stellar populations and an uncertain dust geometry with respect to heating sources. We use images obtained with NIRCam and MIRI as part of the PHANGS--JWST survey to calibrate dust emission at 21$\rm \mu m$, and the emission in the PAH-tracing bands at 3.3, 7.7, 10, and 11.3$\rm \mu m$ as tracers of obscured star formation. We analyse $\sim$ 20000 optically selected HII regions across 19 nearby star-forming galaxies, and benchmark their IR emission against dust attenuation measured from the Balmer decrement. We model the extinction-corrected H$\alpha$ flux as the sum of the observed H$\alpha$ emission and a term proportional to the IR emission, with $a_{IR}$ as the proportionality coefficient. A constant $a_{IR}$ leads to extinction-corrected H$\alpha$ estimates which agree with those obtained with the Balmer decrement with a scatter of $\sim$ 0.1 dex for all bands considered. Among these bands, 21$\rm \mu m$ emission is demonstrated to be the best tracer of dust attenuation. The PAH-tracing bands underestimate the correction for bright HII regions, since in these environments the ratio of PAH-tracing bands to 21$\rm \mu m$ decreases, signalling destruction of the PAH molecules. For fainter HII regions all bands suffer from an increasing contamination from the diffuse infrared background., Comment: accepted for publication in A&A

Using VLT/MUSE integral-field spectroscopic data for the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1097, we explore techniques that can be used to search for extended coherent shocks that can drive gas inflows in centres of galaxies. Such shocks should appear as coherent velocity jumps in gas kinematic maps, but this appearance can be distorted by inaccurate extraction of the velocity values and dominated by the global rotational flow and local perturbations like stellar outflows. We include multiple components in the emission-line fits, which corrects the extracted velocity values and reveals emission associated with AGN outflows. We show that removal of the global rotational flow by subtracting the circular velocity of a fitted flat disk can produce artefacts that obscure signatures of the shocks in the residual velocities if the inner part of the disk is warped or if gas is moving around the centre on elongated (non-circular) trajectories. As an alternative, we propose a model-independent method which examines differences in the LOSVD moments of H$\alpha$ and [N II]$\lambda$6583. This new method successfully reveals the presence of continuous shocks in the regions inward from the nuclear ring of NGC 1097, in agreement with nuclear spiral models., Comment: MNRAS accepted (19 pages, 18 figures, 1 table)

We present new HI observations of the nearby massive spiral galaxy M83, taken with the VLA at $21^{\prime\prime}$ angular resolution ($\approx500$ pc) of an extended ($\sim$1.5 deg$^2$) 10-point mosaic combined with GBT single dish data. We study the super-extended HI disk of M83 (${\sim}$50 kpc in radius), in particular disc kinematics, rotation and the turbulent nature of the atomic interstellar medium. We define distinct regions in the outer disk ($r_{\rm gal}>$central optical disk), including ring, southern area, and southern and northern arm. We examine HI gas surface density, velocity dispersion and non-circular motions in the outskirts, which we compare to the inner optical disk. We find an increase of velocity dispersion ($\sigma_v$) towards the pronounced HI ring, indicative of more turbulent HI gas. Additionally, we report over a large galactocentric radius range (until $r_{\rm gal}{\sim}$50 kpc) that $\sigma_v$ is slightly larger than thermal (i.e. $>8$km s$^{-1}$ ). We find that a higher star formation rate (as traced by FUV emission) is not always necessarily associated with a higher HI velocity dispersion, suggesting that radial transport could be a dominant driver for the enhanced velocity dispersion. We further find a possible branch that connects the extended HI disk to the dwarf irregular galaxy UGCA365, that deviates from the general direction of the northern arm. Lastly, we compare mass flow rate profiles (based on 2D and 3D tilted ring models) and find evidence for outflowing gas at r$_{\rm gal}$ $\sim$2 kpc, inflowing gas at r$_{\rm gal}$ $\sim$5.5 kpc and outflowing gas at r$_{\rm gal}$ $\sim$14 kpc. We caution that mass flow rates are highly sensitive to the assumed kinematic disk parameters, in particular, to the inclination., Comment: accepted for publication in A&A; 16 pages, 12 figures (+8 pages appendix)

We investigate the star formation main sequence (MS) (SFR-M$_{\star}$) down to 10$^{8-9}\mathrm{M}_\odot$ using a sample of 34,061 newly-discovered ultra-faint ($27\lesssim i \lesssim 30$ mag) galaxies at $1\sim27.9$ mag), blue (UV-slope $<\beta>\sim-1.9$), star-forming (rest-frame colors $\sim0.10$ mag, $\sim0.17$ mag) galaxies. These observational characteristics are identified with young (mass-weighted age $<\mathrm{t_{M-w}}>\sim0.014$ Gyr) stellar populations subject to low attenuations ($<\mathrm{A(V)}>\sim0.30$ mag). Our sample allows us to probe the MS down to $10^{8.0}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ at $z=1$ and $10^{8.5}\,\mathrm{M}_\odot$ at $z=3$, around 0.6 dex deeper than previous analysis. In the low-mass galaxy regime, we find an average value for the slope of 0.97 at $1

Analyzing resolved stellar populations across the disk of a galaxy can provide unique insights into how that galaxy assembled its stellar mass over its lifetime. Previous work at ~1 kpc resolution has already revealed common features in the mass buildup (e.g., inside-out growth of galaxies). However, even at approximate kpc scales, the stellar populations are blurred between the different galactic morphological structures such as spiral arms, bars and bulges. Here we present a detailed analysis of the spatially resolved star formation histories (SFHs) of 19 PHANGS-MUSE galaxies, at a spatial resolution of ~100 pc. We show that our sample of local galaxies exhibits predominantly negative radial gradients of stellar age and [Z/H], consistent with previous findings, and a radial structure that is primarily consistent with local star formation, and indicative of inside-out formation. In barred galaxies, we find flatter [Z/H] gradients along the semi-major axis of the bar than along the semi-minor axis, as is expected from the radial mixing of material along the bar. In general, the derived assembly histories of the galaxies in our sample tell a consistent story of inside-out growth, where low-mass galaxies assembled the majority of their stellar mass later in cosmic history than high-mass galaxies. We also show how stellar populations of different ages exhibit different kinematics, with younger stellar populations having lower velocity dispersions than older stellar populations at similar galactocentric distances, which we interpret as an imprint of the progressive dynamical heating of stellar populations as they age. Finally, we explore how the time-averaged star formation rate evolves with time, and how it varies across galactic disks. This analysis reveals a wide variation of the SFHs of galaxy centers and additionally shows that structural features become less pronounced with age., Comment: 52 pages, 48 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

Connecting the gas in HII regions to the underlying source of the ionizing radiation can help us constrain the physical processes of stellar feedback and how HII regions evolve over time. With PHANGS$\unicode{x2013}$MUSE we detect nearly 24,000 HII regions across 19 galaxies and measure the physical properties of the ionized gas (e.g. metallicity, ionization parameter, density). We use catalogues of multi-scale stellar associations from PHANGS$\unicode{x2013}$HST to obtain constraints on the age of the ionizing sources. We construct a matched catalogue of 4,177 HII regions that are clearly linked to a single ionizing association. A weak anti-correlation is observed between the association ages and the H$\alpha$ equivalent width EW(H$\alpha$), the H$\alpha$/FUV flux ratio and the ionization parameter, log q. As all three are expected to decrease as the stellar population ages, this could indicate that we observe an evolutionary sequence. This interpretation is further supported by correlations between all three properties. Interpreting these as evolutionary tracers, we find younger nebulae to be more attenuated by dust and closer to giant molecular clouds, in line with recent models of feedback-regulated star formation. We also observe strong correlations with the local metallicity variations and all three proposed age tracers, suggestive of star formation preferentially occurring in locations of locally enhanced metallicity. Overall, EW(H$\alpha$) and log q show the most consistent trends and appear to be most reliable tracers for the age of an HII region., Comment: 15 pages, 12 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

The upcoming new generation of optical spectrographs on four-meter-class telescopes will provide valuable opportunities for forthcoming galaxy surveys through their huge multiplexing capabilities, excellent spectral resolution, and unprecedented wavelength coverage. WEAVE is a new wide-field spectroscopic facility mounted on the 4.2 m William Herschel Telescope in La Palma. WEAVE-StePS is one of the five extragalactic surveys that will use WEAVE during its first five years of operations. It will observe galaxies using WEAVE MOS (~950 fibres across a field of view of ~3 deg2 on the sky) in low-resolution mode (R~5000, spanning the wavelength range 3660-9590 AA). WEAVE-StePS will obtain high-quality spectra (S/N ~ 10 per AA at R~5000) for a magnitude-limited (I_AB = 20.5) sample of ~25,000 galaxies, the majority selected at z>=0.3. The survey goal is to provide precise spectral measurements in the crucial interval that bridges the gap between LEGA-C and SDSS data. The wide area coverage of ~25 deg2 will enable us to observe galaxies in a variety of environments. The ancillary data available in each observed field (including X-ray coverage, multi-narrow-band photometry and spectroscopic redshift information) will provide an environmental characterisation for each observed galaxy. This paper presents the science case of WEAVE-StePS, the fields to be observed, the parent catalogues used to define the target sample, and the observing strategy chosen after a forecast of the expected performance of the instrument for our typical targets. WEAVE-StePS will go back further in cosmic time than SDSS, extending its reach to encompass more than ~6 Gyr, nearly half of the age of the Universe. The spectral and redshift range covered by WEAVE-StePS will open a new observational window by continuously tracing the evolutionary path of galaxies in the largely unexplored intermediate-redshift range., Comment: 15 pages, 9 figures, A&A in press

The X-shooter Spectral Library (XSL) is a large empirical stellar library used as a benchmark for the development of stellar population models. The inclusion of $\alpha$-elements abundances is crucial to disentangling the chemical evolution of any stellar system. The aim of this paper is to provide a catalogue of high-precision and accurate magnesium and calcium abundances from a wide variety of stars well distributed in the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram. We originally performed an analysis of the derived Mg and Ca abundances for medium-resolution spectra of 611 stars from the XSL Data Release 2. For this purpose, we used the GAUGUIN automated abundance estimation code to fit the ultraviolet-blue (UVB) and visible (VIS) spectra. We tested the consistency of the atmospheric parameters and chemical abundances with the Gaia DR3 and the AMBRE Project datasets. We have finally obtained precise [Mg/Fe] and [Ca/Fe] abundances for 192 and 217 stars respectively, from which 174 stars have measurements in both elements. The stars cover a broad range of effective temperature 4000 < T$_{\rm eff}$ < 6500K, surface gravity 0.3 < log(g) < 4.8 cm s$^{\rm -2}$, and metallicity -2.5 < [Fe/H] < +0.4 dex. We find an excellent agreement with the abundance estimates from the AMBRE:HARPS and the Gaia/RVS (Radial Velocity Spectrometer) analysis. Moreover, the resulting abundances reproduce a plateau in the metal-poor regime followed by a decreasing trend even at supersolar metallicities, as predicted by Galactic chemical evolution models. This catalogue is suitable for improving the modelling of evolutionary stellar population models with empirical $\alpha$-enhancements, which could significantly contribute to the analysis of external galaxies abundances in the near future., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A

Star formation and stellar feedback are interlinked processes that redistribute energy and matter throughout galaxies. When young, massive stars form in spatially clustered environments, they create pockets of expanding gas termed superbubbles. As these processes play a critical role in shaping galaxy discs and regulating the baryon cycle, measuring the properties of superbubbles provides important input for galaxy evolution models. With wide coverage and high angular resolution (50-150 pc) of the PHANGS-ALMA $^{12}$CO (2-1) survey, we can now resolve and identify a statistically representative number of superbubbles with molecular gas in nearby galaxies. We identify superbubbles by requiring spatial correspondence between shells in CO with stellar populations identified in PHANGS-HST, and combine the properties of the stellar populations with CO to constrain feedback models and quantify their energetics. We visually identify 325 cavities across 18 PHANGS-ALMA galaxies, 88 of which have clear superbubble signatures (unbroken shells, central clusters, kinematic signatures of expansion). We measure their radii and expansion velocities using CO to dynamically derive their ages and the mechanical power driving the bubbles, which we use to compute the expected properties of the parent stellar populations driving the bubbles. We find consistency between the predicted and derived stellar ages and masses of the stellar populations if we use a supernova blast wave model that injects energy with a coupling efficiency of 10%, whereas continuous models fail to explain stellar ages we measure. Not only does this confirm molecular gas accurately traces superbubble properties, but it also provides key observational constraints for superbubble models. We also find evidence that the bubbles sweep up gas as they expand and speculate that these sites have the potential to host new generations of stars., Comment: 21 pages, 15 figures, 3 tables. Accepted to A&A. Abstract abridged for arXiv

Ionized nebulae provide critical insights into the conditions of the interstellar medium (ISM). Their bright emission lines enable the measurement of physical properties, such as the gas-phase metallicity, across galaxy disks and in distant galaxies. The PHANGS--MUSE survey has produced optical spectroscopic coverage of the central star-forming discs of 19 nearby main-sequence galaxies. Here, we use the H{\alpha} morphology from this data to identify 30,790 distinct nebulae, finding thousands of nebulae per galaxy. For each nebula, we extract emission line fluxes and, using diagnostic line ratios, identify the dominant excitation mechanism. A total of 23,244 nebulae (75%) are classified as HII regions. The dust attenuation of every nebulae is characterised via the Balmer decrement and we use existing environmental masks to identify their large scale galactic environment (centre, bar, arm, interarm and disc). Using strong-line prescriptions, we measure the gas-phase oxygen abundances (metallicity) and ionization parameter for all HII regions. With this new catalogue, we measure the radial metallicity gradients and explore second order metallicity variations within each galaxy. By quantifying the global scatter in metallicity per galaxy, we find a weak negative correlation with global star formation rate and stronger negative correlation with global gas velocity dispersion (in both ionized and molecular gas). With this paper we release the full catalogue of strong line fluxes and derived properties, providing a rich database for a broad variety of ISM studies., Comment: 27 pages, accepted by MNRAS

A long-standing problem when deriving the physical properties of stellar populations is the degeneracy between age, reddening, and metallicity. When a single metallicity is used for all star clusters in a galaxy, this degeneracy can result in $`$catastrophic$'$ errors for old globular clusters. Typically, approximately 10 - 20 % of all clusters detected in spiral galaxies can have ages that are incorrect by a factor of ten or more. In this paper we present a pilot study for four galaxies (NGC 628, NGC 1433, NGC 1365, and NGC 3351) from the PHANGS-HST survey. We describe methods to correct the age-dating for old globular clusters, by first identifying candidates using their colors, and then reassigning ages and reddening based on a lower metallicity solution. We find that young $`$interlopers$'$ can be identified from their Halpha flux. CO (2-1) intensity or the presence of dust can also be used, but our tests show that they do not work as well. Improvements in the success fraction are possible at the $\sim$ 15 % level (reducing the fraction of catastrophic age-estimates from between 13 - 21 % to 3 - 8 %). A large fraction of the incorrectly age-dated globular clusters are systematically given ages around 100 Myr, polluting the younger populations as well. Incorrectly age-dated globular clusters significantly impact the observed cluster age distribution in NGC 628, which affects the physical interpretation of cluster disruption in this galaxy. For NGC 1365, we also demonstrate how to fix a second major age-dating problem, where very dusty young clusters with E(B-V) $>$ 1.5 mag are assigned old, globular-cluster like ages. Finally, we note the discovery of a dense population of $\sim$ 300 Myr clusters around the central region of NGC 1365. and discuss how this results naturally from the dynamics in a barred galaxy., Comment: 27 pages, 17 figures (NOTE: 1, 5, 9, 12, 14 are lower resolution than in the journal)

The PHANGS collaboration has been building a reference dataset for the multi-scale, multi-phase study of star formation and the interstellar medium in nearby galaxies. With the successful launch and commissioning of JWST, we can now obtain high-resolution infrared imaging to probe the youngest stellar populations and dust emission on the scales of star clusters and molecular clouds ($\sim$5-50 pc). In Cycle 1, PHANGS is conducting an 8-band imaging survey from 2-21$\mu$m of 19 nearby spiral galaxies. CO(2-1) mapping, optical integral field spectroscopy, and UV-optical imaging for all 19 galaxies have been obtained through large programs with ALMA, VLT/MUSE, and Hubble. PHANGS-JWST enables a full inventory of star formation, accurate measurement of the mass and age of star clusters, identification of the youngest embedded stellar populations, and characterization of the physical state of small dust grains. When combined with Hubble catalogs of $\sim$10,000 star clusters, MUSE spectroscopic mapping of $\sim$20,000 HII regions, and $\sim$12,000 ALMA-identified molecular clouds, it becomes possible to measure the timescales and efficiencies of the earliest phases of star formation and feedback, build an empirical model of the dependence of small dust grain properties on local ISM conditions, and test our understanding of how dust-reprocessed starlight traces star formation activity, all across a diversity of galactic environments. Here we describe the PHANGS-JWST Treasury survey, present the remarkable imaging obtained in the first few months of science operations, and provide context for the initial results presented in the first series of PHANGS-JWST publications., Comment: Re-submitted after addressing minor comments from referee. To be published as part of PHANGS-JWST ApJL Focus Issue

We combine archival HST and new JWST imaging data, covering the ultraviolet to mid-infrared regime, to morphologically analyze the nuclear star cluster (NSC) of NGC 628, a grand-design spiral galaxy. The cluster is located in a 200 pc x 400 pc cavity, lacking both dust and gas. We find roughly constant values for the effective radius (r_eff ~ 5 pc) and ellipticity ({\epsilon} ~ 0.05), while the S\'ersic index (n) and position angle (PA) drop from n ~ 3 to ~ 2 and PA ~ 130{\deg} to 90{\deg}, respectively. In the mid-infrared, r_eff ~ 12pc, {\epsilon} ~ 0.4, and n ~ 1-1.5, with the same PA ~ 90{\deg}. The NSC has a stellar mass of log10 (M_nsc / M_Sun) = 7.06 +- 0.31, as derived through B-V, confirmed when using multi-wavelength data, and in agreement with the literature value. Fitting the spectral energy distribution, excluding the mid-infrared data, yields a main stellar population's age of (8 +- 3) Gyr with a metallicity of Z = 0.012 +- 0.006. There is no indication of any significant star formation over the last few Gyr. Whether gas and dust were dynamically kept out or evacuated from the central cavity remains unclear. The best-fit suggests an excess of flux in the mid-infrared bands, with further indications that the center of the mid-infrared structure is displaced with respect to the optical center of the NSC. We discuss five potential scenarios, none of them fully explaining both the observed photometry and structure., Comment: 26 pages, 10 figures, 6 tables. Accepted for publication by ApJL

Mapping star-formation rates (SFR) within galaxies is key to unveiling their assembly and evolution. Calibrations exist for computing SFR from a combination of ultraviolet and infrared bands for galaxies as integrated systems, but their applicability to sub-galactic (kpc) scales remains largely untested. Here we use integral field spectroscopy of 19 nearby ($D <$ 20 Mpc) galaxies obtained by PHANGS-MUSE to derive accurate Balmer decrements (H$\alpha$/H$\beta$) and attenuation-corrected H$\alpha$ maps. We combine this information with mid-infrared maps from WISE at 22 $\rm \mu m$, and ultraviolet maps from GALEX in the far-UV band, to derive SFR surface densities in nearby galaxies on resolved (kpc) scales. Using the H$\alpha$ attenuation-corrected SFR as a reference, we find that hybrid recipes from the literature overestimate the SFR in regions of low SFR surface density, low specific star-formation rate (sSFR), low attenuation and old stellar ages. We attribute these trends to heating of the dust by old stellar populations (IR cirrus). We calibrate this effect by proposing functional forms for the coefficients in front of the IR term which depend on band ratios sensitive to the sSFR. These calibrations prove reliable as a function of physical scale. In particular, they agree within 10% with the attenuation corrections computed from the Balmer decrement on 100 pc scales. Despite small quantitative differences, our calibrations are also applicable to integrated galaxy scales probed by the MaNGA survey, albeit with a larger scatter (up to 0.22 dex). Observations with JWST open up the possibility to calibrate these relations in nearby galaxies with cloud-scale ($\sim$100 pc) resolution mid-IR imaging., Comment: accepted in A&A

The epoch in which galactic discs settle is a major benchmark to test models of galaxy formation and evolution but is as yet largely unknown. Once discs settle and become self-gravitating enough, stellar bars are able to form; therefore, determining the ages of bars can shed light on the epoch of disc settling, and on the onset of secular evolution. Nevertheless, until now, timing when the bar formed has proven challenging. In this work, we present a new methodology for obtaining the bar age, using the star formation history of nuclear discs. Nuclear discs are rotation-supported structures, built by gas pushed to the centre via bar-induced torques, and their formation is thus coincident with bar formation. In particular, we use integral field spectroscopic (IFS) data from the TIMER survey to disentangle the star formation history of the nuclear disc from that of the underlying main disc, which enables us to more accurately determine when the nuclear disc forms. We demonstrate the methodology on the galaxy NGC 1433 -- which we find to host an old bar that is $8.0^{+1.6}_{-1.1}\rm{(sys)}^{+0.2}_{-0.5}\rm{(stat)}$ Gyr old -- and describe a number of tests carried out on both the observational data and numerical simulations. In addition, we present evidence that the nuclear disc of NGC 1433 grows in accordance with an inside-out formation scenario. This methodology is applicable to high-resolution IFS data of barred galaxies with nuclear discs, making it ideally suited for the TIMER survey sample. In the future we will thus be able to determine the bar age for a large sample of galaxies, shedding light on the epoch of disc settling and bar formation., Comment: Accepted for Publication by A&A, 18 pages, 14 figures

The main interest of the Science Team for the exploitation of the MEGARA instrument at the 10.4m Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC hereafter) is devoted to the study of nearby galaxies, with focus on the research of the history of star formation, and chemical and kinematical properties of disc systems. We refer to this project as MEGADES: MEGARA Galaxy Discs Evolution Survey. The initial goal of MEGADES is to provide a detailed study of the inner regions of nearby disc galaxies, both in terms of their spectrophotometric and chemical evolution, and their dynamical characterisation, by disentangling the contribution of in-situ and ex-situ processes to the history of star formation and effective chemical enrichment of these regions. In addition, the dynamical analysis of these inner regions naturally includes the identification and characterization of galactic winds potentially present in these regions. At a later stage, we will extend this study further out in galactocentric distance. The first stage of this project encompasses the analysis of the central regions of a total of 43 nearby galaxies observed with the MEGARA Integral Field Unit for 114 hours, including both Guaranteed Time and Open Time observations. In this paper we provide a set of all the processed data products available to the community and early results from the analysis of these data regarding stellar continuum, ionized and neutral gas features., Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics

The classification of gamma-ray-detected blazar candidates of uncertain type (BCU) is a relevant problem in extragalactic gamma-ray astronomy. Here we report the optical spectroscopic characterization, using two 3-4~m class telescopes, Telescopio Nazionale Galileo and Devasthal Optical Telescope, of 27 BCUs detected with the Fermi Large Area Telescope. Since the identification of emission lines is easier in broad-line blazars, which usually exhibit low frequency peaked (synchrotron peak frequency $\leqslant10^{14}$ Hz) spectral energy distribution, we primarily target such BCUs. We found that 8 out of 27 sources exhibit broad emission lines in their optical spectra, 3 of them have redshifts $>$1 and the farthest one is at $z=2.55$. The optical spectra of 2 of the 19 remaining objects are dominated by the absorption spectra of the host galaxy, and there is a tentative detection of the Lyman-$\alpha$ absorption feature in one source. The spectra of the remaining 16 objects, on the other hand, are found to be featureless., Comment: MNRAS, in press

One of the fundamental factors regulating the evolution of galaxies is stellar feedback. However, we still do not have strong observational constraints on the relative importance of the different feedback mechanisms (e.g. radiation, ionised gas pressure, stellar winds) in driving HII region evolution and molecular cloud disruption. In this letter, we constrain the relative importance of the various feedback mechanisms from young massive star populations by resolving HII regions across the disk of the nearby star-forming galaxy NGC 1672. We combine measurements of ionised gas nebular lines obtained by PHANGS-MUSE, with high-resolution imaging from the HST in both the narrow-band H{\alpha} and broad-band filters. We identify a sample of 40 isolated, compact HII regions in the HST H{\alpha} image, for which we measure the sizes that were previously unresolved in seeing-limited ground-based observations. Additionally, we identify the ionisation source(s) for each HII region from catalogues produced as part of the PHANGS-HST survey. We find that the HII regions investigated are mildly dominated by thermal or wind pressure, yet their elevation above the radiation pressure is within the expected uncertainty range. We see that radiation pressure provides a substantially higher contribution to the total pressure than previously found in the literature over similar size scales. In general, we find higher pressures within more compact HII regions, which is driven by the inherent size scaling relations of each pressure term, albeit with significant scatter introduced by the variation in the stellar population properties (e.g. luminosity, mass, age, metallicity). For nearby galaxies, here we provide a promising approach that could yield the statistics required to map out how the importance of different stellar feedback mechanisms evolve over the lifetime of an HII region., Comment: 5(+4) pages, 6 figures, 1 table (available online), accepted for publication in A&A Letters

There exists some consensus that stellar mass surface density ($\Sigma_{*}$) and molecular gas mass surface density ($\Sigma_{\rm mol}$) are the main quantities responsible for locally setting the star formation rate. This regulation is inferred from locally resolved scaling relations between these two quantities and the star formation rate surface density ($\Sigma_{\rm SFR}$). However, the universality of these relations is debated. Here, we probe the interplay between these three quantities across different galactic environments at a spatial resolution of 150 pc. We perform a hierarchical Bayesian linear regression to find the best set of parameters $C_{*}$, $C_{\rm mol}$, and $C_{\rm norm}$ that describe the star-forming plane conformed by these quantities, such that $\log \Sigma_{\rm SFR} = C_{*} \log \Sigma_{*} + C_{\rm mol} \log \Sigma_{\rm mol} + C_{\rm norm}$, and explore variations in the determined parameters across galactic environments, focusing our analysis on the $C_{*}$ and $C_{\rm mol}$ slopes. We find signs of variations in the posterior distributions of $C_{*}$ and $C_{\rm mol}$ across different galactic environments. Bars show the most negative value of $C_{*}$, a sign of longer depletion times, while spiral arms show the highest $C_{*}$ among all environments. We conclude that systematic variations in the interplay of $\Sigma_{*}$, $\Sigma_{\rm mol}$ and $\Sigma_{\rm SFR}$ across galactic environments exist at a spatial resolution of 150 pc, and we interpret these variations as produced by an additional mechanism regulating the formation of stars that is not captured by either $\Sigma_{*}$ or $\Sigma_{\rm mol}$. We find that these variations correlate with changes in the star formation efficiency across environments, which could be linked to the dynamical state of the gas that prevents it from collapsing and forming stars, or to changes in the molecular gas fraction., Comment: 21 pages, 16 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

We use an unprecedented sample of about 23,000 HII regions detected at an average physical resolution of 67pc in the PHANGS-MUSE sample to study the extragalactic HII region Ha luminosity function (LF). Our observations probe the star-forming disk of 19 nearby spiral galaxies with low inclination and located close to the star formation main sequence at z=0. The mean LF slope $\alpha$ in our sample is =1.73 with a $\sigma$ of 0.15. We find that $\alpha$ decreases with the galaxy's star formation rate surface density and argue that this is driven by an enhanced clustering of young stars at high gas surface densities. Looking at the HII regions within single galaxies we find that no significant variations occur between the LF of the inner and outer part of the star-forming disk, whereas the LF in the spiral arm areas is shallower than in the inter-arm areas for six out of the 13 galaxies with clearly visible spiral arms. We attribute these variations to the spiral arms increasing the molecular clouds arm--inter-arm mass contrast and find suggestive evidence that they are more evident for galaxies with stronger spiral arms. Furthermore, we find systematic variations in $\alpha$ between samples of HII regions with high and low ionization parameter q and argue that they are driven by the aging of HII regions., Comment: Accepted in A&A. Main text: 19 pages, 11 Figures, 4 Tables. Catalog including 23301 HII regions will be available in electronic form at the CDS upon official publication

Understanding the spatial distribution of metals within galaxies allows us to study the processes of chemical enrichment and mixing in the interstellar medium (ISM). In this work, we map the two-dimensional distribution of metals using a Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) for 19 star-forming galaxies observed with the Very Large Telescope/Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (VLT-MUSE) as part of the PHANGS-MUSE survey. We find that 12 of our 19 galaxies show significant two-dimensional metallicity variation. Those without significant variations typically have fewer metallicity measurements, indicating this is due to the dearth of HII regions in these galaxies, rather than a lack of higher-order variation. After subtracting a linear radial gradient, we see no enrichment in the spiral arms versus the disc. We measure the 50 per cent correlation scale from the two-point correlation function of these radially-subtracted maps, finding it to typically be an order of magnitude smaller than the fitted GPR kernel scale length. We study the dependence of the two-point correlation scale length with a number of global galaxy properties. We find no relationship between the 50 per cent correlation scale and the overall gas turbulence, in tension with existing theoretical models. We also find more actively star forming galaxies, and earlier type galaxies have a larger 50 per cent correlation scale. The size and stellar mass surface density do not appear to correlate with the 50 per cent correlation scale, indicating that perhaps the evolutionary state of the galaxy and its current star formation activity is the strongest indicator of the homogeneity of the metal distribution., Comment: 20 pages, 14 Figures, 2 Appendices. Accepted for publication in MNRAS. Updated to include link to publicly available metallicity maps, have a good holiday and a restful new year!

We present simple stellar population models based on the empirical X-shooter Spectral Library (XSL) from NUV to NIR wavelengths. The unmatched characteristics of relatively high resolution and extended wavelength coverage ($350-2480$ nm, $R\sim10\,000$) of the XSL population models bring us closer to bridging optical and NIR studies of intermediate and old stellar populations. It is now common to find good agreement between observed and predicted NUV and optical properties of stellar clusters due to our good understanding of the main-sequence and early giant phases of stars. However, NIR spectra of intermediate-age and old stellar populations are sensitive to cool K and M giants. The asymptotic giant branch, especially the thermally pulsing asymptotic giant branch, shapes the NIR spectra of $0.5-2$ Gyr old stellar populations; the tip of the red giant branch defines the NIR spectra of populations with ages larger than that. We construct sequences of the average spectra of static giants, variable-rich giants, and C-rich giants to include in the models separately. The models span the metallicity range $-2.2<[Fe/H]<+0.2$ and ages above 50 Myr, a broader range in the NIR than in other models based on empirical spectral libraries. Our models can reproduce the integrated optical colours of the Coma cluster galaxies at the same level as other semi-empirical models found in the literature. In the NIR, there are notable differences between the colours of the models and Coma cluster galaxies. The XSL models expand the range of predicted values of NIR indices compared to other models based on empirical libraries. Our models make it possible to perform in-depth studies of colours and spectral features consistently throughout the optical and the NIR range to clarify the role of evolved cool stars in stellar populations., Comment: 30 pages, 26 figures, accepted to Astronomy & Astrophysics, models will be available on http://xsl.astro.unistra.fr/ upon publishing

We present the third data release (DR3) of the X-shooter Spectral Library (XSL). This moderate-to-high resolution, near-ultraviolet-to-near-infrared ($350-2480$ nm, R $\sim$ 10 000) spectral library is composed of 830 stellar spectra of 683 stars. DR3 improves upon the previous data release by providing the combined de-reddened spectra of the three X-shooter segments over the full $350-2480$ nm wavelength range. It also includes additional 20 M-dwarf spectra from the ESO archive. We provide detailed comparisons between this library and Gaia EDR3, MILES, NGSL, CaT library, and (E-)IRTF. The normalised rms deviation is better than $D=0.05$ or 5$\%$ for the majority of spectra in common between MILES (144 spectra of 180), NGSL (112$/$116), and (E-)IRTF (55$/$77) libraries. Comparing synthetic colours of those spectra reveals only negligible offsets and small rms scatter, such as the median offset(rms) 0.001$\pm$0.040 mag in the (box1-box2) colour of the UVB arm,-0.004$\pm$0.028 mag in (box3-box4) of the VIS arm, and -0.001$\pm$0.045 mag in (box2-box3) colour between the UVB and VIS arms, when comparing stars in common with MILES. We also find an excellent agreement between the Gaia published (BP-RP) colours and those measured from the XSL DR3 spectra, with a zero median offset and an rms scatter of 0.037 mag for 449 non-variable stars. The unmatched characteristics of this library, which combine a relatively high resolution, a large number of stars, and an extended wavelength coverage, will help us to bridge the gap between the optical and the near-IR studies of intermediate and old stellar populations, and to probe low-mass stellar systems., Comment: 26 pages, 25 figures, accepted to Astronomy & Astrophysics. The data are available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr(130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/qcat?J/A+A/ or on the XSL web-page http://xsl.astro.unistra.fr

We present the PHANGS-MUSE survey, a programme using the MUSE IFS at the ESO VLT to map 19 massive $(9.4 < \log(M_{*}/M_\odot) < 11.0)$ nearby (D < 20 Mpc) star-forming disc galaxies. The survey consists of 168 MUSE pointings (1'x1' each), a total of nearly 15 Million spectra, covering ~1.5 Million independent spectra. PHANGS-MUSE provides the first IFS view of star formation across different local environments (including galaxy centres, bars, spiral arms) in external galaxies at a median resolution of 50~pc, better than the mean inter-cloud distance in the ionised interstellar medium. This `cloud-scale' resolution allows detailed demographics and characterisations of HII regions and other ionised nebulae. PHANGS-MUSE further delivers a unique view on the associated gas and stellar kinematics, and provides constraints on the star formation history. The PHANGS-MUSE survey is complemented by dedicated ALMA CO(2-1) and multi-band HST observations, therefore allowing us to probe the key stages of the star formation process from molecular clouds to HII regions and star clusters. This paper describes the scientific motivation, sample selection, observational strategy, data reduction and analysis process of the PHANGS-MUSE survey. We present our bespoke automated data-reduction framework, which is built on the reduction recipes provided by ESO, but additionally allows for mosaicking and homogenisation of the point spread function. We further present a detailed quality assessment and a brief illustration of the potential scientific applications of the large set of PHANGS-MUSE data products generated by our data analysis framework. The data cubes and analysis data products described in this paper represent the basis for the first PHANGS-MUSE public data release and are available in the ESO archive and via the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre., Comment: 48 pages, 28 figures, 4 tables, accepted for pub in A&A, Dec 8, 2021. Data products released publicly at this address https://archive.eso.org/scienceportal/home?data_collection=PHANGS

Aims: The complexity of star formation at the physical scale of molecular clouds is not yet fully understood. We investigate the mechanisms regulating the formation of stars in different environments within nearby star-forming galaxies from the PHANGS sample. Methods: Integral field spectroscopic data and radio-interferometric observations of 18 galaxies were combined to explore the existence of the resolved star formation main sequence (rSFMS), resolved Kennicutt-Schmidt relation (rKS), and resolved molecular gas main sequence (rMGMS), and we derived their slope and scatter at spatial resolutions from 100 pc to 1 kpc (under various assumptions). Results: All three relations were recovered at the highest spatial resolution (100 pc). Furthermore, significant variations in these scaling relations were observed across different galactic environments. The exclusion of non-detections has a systematic impact on the inferred slope as a function of the spatial scale. Finally, the scatter of the $\Sigma_\mathrm{mol. gas + stellar}$ versus $\Sigma_\mathrm{SFR}$ correlation is smaller than that of the rSFMS, but higher than that found for the rKS. Conclusions: The rMGMS has the tightest relation at a spatial scale of 100 pc (scatter of 0.34 dex), followed by the rKS (0.41 dex) and then the rSFMS (0.51 dex). This is consistent with expectations from the timescales involved in the evolutionary cycle of molecular clouds. Surprisingly, the rKS shows the least variation across galaxies and environments, suggesting a tight link between molecular gas and subsequent star formation. The scatter of the three relations decreases at lower spatial resolutions, with the rKS being the tightest (0.27 dex) at a spatial scale of 1 kpc. Variation in the slope of the rSFMS among galaxies is partially due to different detection fractions of $\Sigma_\mathrm{SFR}$ with respect to $\Sigma_\mathrm{stellar}$., Comment: 27 pages, 29 figures, Accepted in A&A

We present PHANGS-ALMA, the first survey to map CO J=2-1 line emission at ~1" ~ 100pc spatial resolution from a representative sample of 90 nearby (d<~20 Mpc) galaxies that lie on or near the z=0 "main sequence" of star-forming galaxies. CO line emission traces the bulk distribution of molecular gas, which is the cold, star-forming phase of the interstellar medium. At the resolution achieved by PHANGS-ALMA, each beam reaches the size of a typical individual giant molecular cloud (GMC), so that these data can be used to measure the demographics, life-cycle, and physical state of molecular clouds across the population of galaxies where the majority of stars form at z=0. This paper describes the scientific motivation and background for the survey, sample selection, global properties of the targets, ALMA observations, and characteristics of the delivered ALMA data and derived data products. As the ALMA sample serves as the parent sample for parallel surveys with VLT/MUSE, HST, AstroSat, VLA, and other facilities, we include a detailed discussion of the sample selection. We detail the estimation of galaxy mass, size, star formation rate, CO luminosity, and other properties, compare estimates using different systems and provide best-estimate integrated measurements for each target. We also report the design and execution of the ALMA observations, which combine a Cycle~5 Large Program, a series of smaller programs, and archival observations. Finally, we present the first 1" resolution atlas of CO emission from nearby galaxies and describe the properties and contents of the first PHANGS-ALMA public data release., Comment: 76 pages, 33 figures. Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Supplement series. Full resolution version and the image atlas to appear as a figure set in the published version can be found https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/publications . Data release coming soon to the ALMA archive and CADC temporarily available at http://phangs.org/data

We describe the processing of the PHANGS-ALMA survey and present the PHANGS-ALMA pipeline, a public software package that processes calibrated interferometric and total power data into science-ready data products. PHANGS-ALMA is a large, high-resolution survey of CO J=2-1 emission from nearby galaxies. The observations combine ALMA's main 12-m array, the 7-m array, and total power observations and use mosaics of dozens to hundreds of individual pointings. We describe the processing of the u-v data, imaging and deconvolution, linear mosaicking, combining interferometer and total power data, noise estimation, masking, data product creation, and quality assurance. Our pipeline has a general design and can also be applied to VLA and ALMA observations of other spectral lines and continuum emission. We highlight our recipe for deconvolution of complex spectral line observations, which combines multiscale clean, single scale clean, and automatic mask generation in a way that appears robust and effective. We also emphasize our two-track approach to masking and data product creation. We construct one set of "broadly masked" data products, which have high completeness but significant contamination by noise, and another set of "strictly masked" data products, which have high confidence but exclude faint, low signal-to-noise emission. Our quality assurance tests, supported by simulations, demonstrate that 12-m+7-m deconvolved data recover a total flux that is significantly closer to the total power flux than the 7-m deconvolved data alone. In the appendices, we measure the stability of the ALMA total power calibration in PHANGS--ALMA and test the performance of popular short-spacing correction algorithms., Comment: Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Supplement series. 65 pages, 33 figures. Software available at https://github.com/akleroy/phangs_imaging_scripts . For a full resolution version see https://sites.google.com/view/phangs/publications

Our goal is to estimate the star formation main sequence (SFMS) and the star formation rate density (SFRD) at z <= 0.017 (d < 75 Mpc) using the Javalambre Photometric Local Universe Survey (J-PLUS) first data release, that probes 897.4 deg2 with twelve optical bands. We extract the Halpha emission flux of 805 local galaxies from the J-PLUS filter J0660, being the continuum level estimated with the other eleven J-PLUS bands, and the dust attenuation and nitrogen contamination corrected with empirical relations. Stellar masses (M), Halpha luminosities (L), and star formation rates (SFRs) were estimated by accounting for parameters covariances. Our sample comprises 689 blue galaxies and 67 red galaxies, classified in the (u-g) vs (g-z) color-color diagram, plus 49 AGN. The SFMS is explored at log M > 8 and it is clearly defined by the blue galaxies, with the red galaxies located below them. The SFMS is described as log SFR = 0.83 log M - 8.44. We find a good agreement with previous estimations of the SFMS, especially those based on integral field spectroscopy. The Halpha luminosity function of the AGN-free sample is well described by a Schechter function with log L* = 41.34, log phi* = -2.43, and alpha = -1.25. Our measurements provide a lower characteristic luminosity than several previous studies in the literature. The derived star formation rate density at d < 75 Mpc is log rho_SFR = -2.10 +- 0.11, with red galaxies accounting for 15% of the SFRD. Our value is lower than previous estimations at similar redshift, and provides a local reference for evolutionary studies regarding the star formation history of the Universe., Comment: 26 pages. Accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics

The PHANGS program is building the first dataset to enable the multi-phase, multi-scale study of star formation across the nearby spiral galaxy population. This effort is enabled by large survey programs with ALMA, VLT/MUSE, and HST, with which we have obtained CO(2-1) imaging, optical spectroscopic mapping, and high resolution UV-optical imaging, respectively. Here, we present PHANGS-HST, which has obtained five band NUV-U-B-V-I imaging of the disks of 38 spiral galaxies at distances of 4-23 Mpc, and parallel V and I band imaging of their halos, to provide a census of tens of thousands of compact star clusters, and multi-scale stellar associations. The combination of HST, ALMA, and VLT/MUSE observations will yield an unprecedented joint catalog of the observed and physical properties of ~100,000 star clusters, associations, HII regions, and molecular clouds. With these basic units of star formation, PHANGS will systematically chart the evolutionary cycling between gas and stars, across a diversity of galactic environments found in nearby galaxies. We discuss the design of the PHANGS-HST survey, and provide an overview of the HST data processing pipeline and first results, highlighting new methods for selecting star cluster candidates, morphological classification of candidates with convolutional neural networks, and identification of stellar associations over a range of physical scales with a watershed algorithm. We describe the cross-observatory imaging, catalogs, and software products to be released. These high-level science products will seed a broad range of investigations, in particular, the study of embedded stellar populations and dust with JWST, for which a PHANGS Cycle 1 Treasury program to obtain eight band 2-21 $\mu$m imaging has been approved., Comment: ApJS in press. Accepted draft includes moderate revision and updates to the originally posted submitted version. 27 pages, 11 figures, 1 table. Data products released at https://archive.stsci.edu/hlsp/phangs-hst/

The sensitivity and angular resolution of photometric surveys executed by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) enable studies of individual star clusters in galaxies out to a few tens of megaparsecs. The fitting of spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of star clusters is essential for measuring their physical properties and studying their evolution. We report on the use of the publicly available Code Investigating GALaxy Emission (CIGALE) SED fitting package to derive ages, stellar masses, and reddenings for star clusters identified in the Physics at High Angular resolution in Nearby GalaxieS-HST (PHANGS-HST) survey. Using samples of star clusters in the galaxy NGC 3351, we present results of benchmark analyses performed to validate the code and a comparison to SED fitting results from the Legacy ExtraGalactic Ultraviolet Survey (LEGUS). We consider procedures for the PHANGS-HST SED fitting pipeline, e.g., the choice of single stellar population models, the treatment of nebular emission and dust, and the use of fluxes versus magnitudes for the SED fitting. We report on the properties of clusters in NGC 3351 and find, on average, the clusters residing in the inner star-forming ring of NGC 3351 are young ($< 10$ Myr) and massive ($10^{5} M_{\odot}$) while clusters in the stellar bulge are significantly older. Cluster mass function fits yield $\beta$ values around -2, consistent with prior results with a tendency to be shallower at the youngest ages. Finally, we explore a Bayesian analysis with additional physically-motivated priors for the distribution of ages and masses and analyze the resulting cluster distributions., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS (2021-01-06), 22 pages, 18 figures, 2 tables

Inner bars are frequent structures in the local Universe and thought to substantially influence the nuclear regions of disc galaxies. In this study we explore the structure and dynamics of inner bars by deriving maps and radial profiles of their mean stellar population content and comparing them to previous findings in the context of main bars. To this end, we exploit observations obtained with the integral-field spectrograph MUSE of three double-barred galaxies in the TIMER sample. The results indicate that inner bars can be distinguished based on their stellar population properties alone. More precisely, inner bars show elevated metallicities and depleted [$\alpha$/Fe] abundances. Although they exhibit slightly younger stellar ages compared to the nuclear disc, the typical age differences are small, except at their outer ends. These ends of the inner bars are clearly younger compared to their inner parts, an effect known from main bars as orbital age separation. In particular, the youngest stars (i.e. those with the lowest radial velocity dispersion) seem to occupy the most elongated orbits along the (inner) bar major axis. We speculate that these distinct ends of bars could be connected to the morphological feature of ansae. Radial profiles of metallicity and [$\alpha$/Fe] enhancements are flat along the inner bar major axis, but show significantly steeper slopes along the minor axis. This radial mixing in the inner bar is also known from main bars and indicates that inner bars significantly affect the radial distribution of stars. In summary, based on maps and radial profiles of the mean stellar population content and in line with previous TIMER results, inner bars appear to be scaled down versions of the main bars seen in galaxies. This suggests the picture of a "galaxy within a galaxy", with inner bars in nuclear discs being dynamically equivalent to main bars in main galaxy discs., Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A; 11 pages, 4 figures, 2 tables

PHANGS-HST is an ultraviolet-optical imaging survey of 38 spiral galaxies within ~20 Mpc. Combined with the PHANGS-ALMA, PHANGS-MUSE surveys and other multiwavelength data, the dataset will provide an unprecedented look into the connections between young stars, HII regions, and cold molecular gas in these nearby star-forming galaxies. Accurate distances are needed to transform measured observables into physical parameters (e.g., brightness to luminosity, angular to physical sizes of molecular clouds, star clusters and associations). PHANGS-HST has obtained parallel ACS imaging of the galaxy halos in the F606W and F814W bands. Where possible, we use these parallel fields to derive tip of the red giant branch (TRGB) distances to these galaxies. In this paper, we present TRGB distances for 11 galaxies from ~4 to ~15 Mpc, based on the first year of PHANGS-HST observations. Five of these represent the first published TRGB distance measurements (IC 5332, NGC 2835, NGC 4298, NGC 4321, and NGC 4328), and eight of which are the best available distances to these targets. We also provide a compilation of distances for the 118 galaxies in the full PHANGS sample, which have been adopted for the first PHANGS-ALMA public data release., Comment: 20 pages, 8 figures, accepted to MNRAS