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As with other mountain areas in Europe, the subalpine belt of the Central Spanish Pyrenees (approximately 1600–2200 m a.s.l.) has undergone constant deforestation since the Neolithic era and particularly during the Late Middle Ages, in favour of livestock management and grazing in summer. This furthered the rise of transhumance between the lowlands and the highlands. The abrupt change in land cover triggered a variety of geomorphic processes and landforms that partially contributed to land degradation and an increase in erosion and sediment yield: shallow landslides, solifluction lobes, soil creeping, terracettes, parallel deep incisions (henceforth: gullies) and stone-banked lobes. The main factors explaining the location of the various landforms are elevation, gradient, aspect, plant cover, soil characteristics, and the topographic index. The statistical analysis clearly separates two types of landforms: (i) shallow landslides, solifluction lobes, and areas of soil creeping, located at relatively low elevations, deep soils and fairly gentle gradients; and (ii) terracettes, gullies and stone-banked lobes, which are generally found at high elevations, on thin soils, north-facing slopes and steep gradients. The declining livestock pressure from the beginning of the 19th century, and particularly from the mid-20th century, explains the progressive re-colonization of the subalpine belt by forest and the reduction in shallow landslides over the last few decades. Most likely, this forest recovery will continue in the near future, with the hydrological, geomorphological and biogeographical consequences still being far from understood.

Regarding the contents of the Supplementary material 2, which contained the erosion rates database used in the article, we regret that the plain text file was corrupted and some of the erosion rates are wrongly formatted. We would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. We provide the complete database in Microsoft Excel format. This file should be used instead of the original one.

El piso subalpino pirenaico ha experimentado una progresiva deforestación desde el Neolítico como consecuencia de prácticas ganaderas necesitadas de pastos de aprovechamiento estival para atender a las necesidades de trasterminancia y trashumancia. Desde los siglos XI y XII la deforestación se generaliza, permitiendo la expansión de extensas superficies de pastos desde 1400 m s.n.m. en sustitución de pinares, hayedos y abetales. Este cambio en la cubierta vegetal dio lugar a cambios en el régimen térmico y de acumulación/fusión nival del piso subalpino, así como en la capacidad de generación de escorrentía superficial. Desde un punto de vista geomorfológico los efectos de la deforestación se dejan sentir sobre todo en la formación de cabeceras activas de torrentes y en el desarrollo de espectaculares redes de cárcavas paralelas. Un aspecto muy interesante, no suficientemente explicado es el descenso altitudinal de ciertos procesos geomorfológicos que habitualmente se consideran más propios de ambientes periglaciares mitigados (por ejemplo, solifluxión, formación de terracillas o de lóbulos de piedras escalonados). En este trabajo se analiza su distribución espacial y se discuten las razones de ese descenso altitudinal, así como su evolución futura en relación con la actual reocupación del bosque en el piso subalpino.

The montane and subalpine belts in European mountains were affected by intense land use/land cover changes during the twentieth century. In the case of the subalpine belt, most European mountains were affected by complex deforestation processes from Neolithic times, leading to the expansion of summer grasslands to support grazing by transhumant sheep and goats flocks. This resulted in an altitudinal reduction of the tree line and the occurrence of severe soil erosion and shallow landsliding. The intense livestock pressure over centuries explains why the landscape remained without major change until the middle of the twentieth century. Since then, depopulation, land abandonment, and the disappearance of the transhumant system have resulted in a marked decline in livestock numbers and subsequent encroachment of shrubs and trees in the subalpine belt. The Urbión Mountains (Iberian Range, northern Spain) provides one of the clearest examples in the Iberian Peninsula, where there was intense deforestation since the Neolithic period to enlarge the area of subalpine summer grasslands. The recent reversal of this situation in the last decades led to (i) a marked trend to dense forest, which resulted in an average 200 m altitudinal advance, and (ii) the spatial contraction of shrublands, which have been replaced by dense forest in the highest areas. Changes will continue in the future, possibly enhanced by global warming.

In this study the spatial distribution of shallow landslides in the upper montane and subalpine belts of the Urbión Mountains (Iberian Range, northern Spain) was investigated, particularly in relation to the spatial organization of deforestation and land cover. The upper montane and subalpine belts have been deforested several times since the Neolithic Period, to enlarge the area of summer grasslands for feeding transhumant sheep flocks. Consequently, the timberline was lowered by 400–600 m, and increased the occurrence of severe erosion processes, particularly shallow landslides. This study shows that most of the landslide scars are in the summer grasslands area, and that a remarkable extent of the subalpine belt area has been subjected to mass movements. In addition to land use, the soil characteristics and topography help explain the development of conditions most favorable to landsliding. Shallow landslide susceptibility was highest in the upper parts of the slopes near the divides, in areas having slope gradients of 10–30° and deep soils with an increasing proportion of clay with depth. The landslides were clustered and not randomly distributed, and the causes of this spatial distribution are discussed. The current trend of woody encroachment in the upper montane and subalpine belts, resulting from decreasing livestock pressure, will probably reduce the susceptibility of these areas to shallow landslides in the future.

The conversion of subalpine forests into grasslands for pastoral use is a well-known phenomenon, although for most mountain areas the timing of deforestation has not been determined. The presence of charcoal fragments in soil profiles affected by shallow landsliding enabled us to date the occurrence of fires and the periods of conversion of subalpine forest into grasslands in the Urbión Mountains, Iberian Range, Spain. We found that the treeline in the highest parts of the northwestern massifs of the Iberian Range (the Urbión, Demanda, Neila, and Cebollera massifs) is currently between 1500 and 1600 m a.s.l., probably because of pastoral use of the subalpine belt, whereas in the past it would have reached almost the highest divides (at approximately 2100–2200 m a.s.l.). The radiocarbon dates obtained indicate that the transformation of the subalpine belt occurred during the Late Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Middle Ages. Forest clearing was probably moderate during fires prior to the Middle Ages, as the small size of the sheep herds and the local character of the markets only required small clearings, and therefore more limited fires. Thus, it is likely that the forest recovered burnt areas in a few decades; this suggests the management of the forest and grasslands following a slash-and-burn system. During the Middle and Modern Ages deforestation and grassland expansion affected most of the subalpine belt and coincided with the increasing prevalence of transhumance, as occurred in other mountains in the Iberian Peninsula (particularly the Pyrenees). Although the occurrence of shallow landslides following deforestation between the Neolithic and the Roman Period cannot be ruled out, the most extensive shallow landsliding processes would have occurred from the Middle Ages until recent times.

[ES] Este trabajo es una síntesis de la evolución paisajística, funcional y geomorfológica del piso subalpino de la Sierra de Urbión, proporcionando una perspectiva geoecológica de las interacciones entre actividades humanas, organización del espacio, dinámica geomorfológica y transformaciones recientes en los usos del suelo. Los cambios paisajísticos del piso subalpino en la Sierra de Urbión se iniciaron al menos en el Neolítico tardío con incendios que procuraban eliminar el bosque para permitir la expansión de los pastos de aprovechamiento estival y así favorecer una incipiente trashumancia de ganado lanar. Los incendios se prolongaron a lo largo del Calcolítico y las edades del Bronce y del Hierro, culminando durante la Edad Media. Es probable que en este último periodo los incendios fueran menos necesarios dados los cambios producidos anteriormente. La deforestación del piso subalpino sería responsable de la ocurrencia de numerosos deslizamientos, que han desmantelado el suelo en gran parte de la Sierra por encima de 1500 m s.n.m. La crisis del sistema trashumante a partir de comienzos del siglo xix ha reducido la presión ganadera sobre los pastos de verano y, especialmente en la segunda mitad del siglo xx, ha contribuido a la expansión de matorrales y bosques, mientras los pastos subalpinos se han reducido notablemente. El descenso de la presión ganadera indica que la expansión del bosque va a continuar en el futuro, en un contexto de calentamiento global y menor duración del manto de nieve en el piso subalpino., [EN] This paper is a synthesis of the landscape, geomorphic and functional evolution of the subalpine belt in the Urbión Sierra, providing a geoecological perspective of the interactions between human activity, spatial organization, geomorphological dynamics and recent land use changes. Landscape changes in the subalpine belt started at least during the Late Neolithic, with forest fires that tried to waste the forest to enable the expansion of summer grasslands favouring an incipient sheep transhumance. Fires occurred also through the Chalcolithic and the Bronze and Iron Ages, and culminated during the Middle Ages. Deforestation of the subalpine belt would be responsible for the triggering of a number of shallow landslides and soil erosion in steep slopes above 1500 m a.s.l. The crisis of the transhumance since the beginning of the 19th century reduced the livestock pressure, particularly in the second half of the 20th century, and has contributed to shrub and forest expansion, whereas the area occupied by summer grasslands has been remarkably reduced. The decreasing livestock pressure suggests that forest expansion will continue in the next future, in a favourable context of global warming and declining presence of snowpack in the subalpine belt.

[ES] Se revisan los efectos de la evolución del clima y los cambios de uso del suelo / cubierta vegetal en el Pirineo Central español a diferentes escalas espaciales y temporales. Los estudios paleoclimáticos, basados en análisis multiproxy de sedimentos lacustres, glaciares, espeleotémicos y registros dendrológicos, entre otros, han demostrado la ocurrencia de importantes fluctuaciones climáticas durante la deglaciación de finales del Pleistoceno Superior y durante el Holoceno, afectando a la distribución de la vegetación, la generación de escorrentía, la frecuencia de avenidas y las formas de organización del espacio por parte de las sociedades humanas, en particular durante el evento 8.2, la Edad del Bronce, la Anomalía Climática Medieval y la Pequeña Edad del Hielo. El estudio del impacto de las actividades humanas sobre la dinámica del paisaje en el último siglo y medio ha revelado cambios espectaculares en la estructura y distribución de la vegetación, tanto en el piso montano como en el subalpino y, consecuentemente, cambios en la generación de escorrentía, la intensidad de la erosión del suelo y las fuentes de sedimento, cualquiera que sea la escala espacial a la que se contempla el problema. De forma general puede afirmarse que a mediados del siglo XIX se alcanza la máxima presión sobre el territorio, cultivándose todas las laderas posibles hasta una altitud aproximada de 1650 m s.n.m. y empleando frecuentemente el fuego para limitar la expansión de matorrales en zonas de pastos, lo que dio lugar a intensos procesos de erosión y degradación del suelo, y al desarrollo de ríos trenzados con una elevada torrencialidad. Posteriormente, el abandono de tierras de cultivo desde comienzos del siglo XX (y, en especial, desde la década de 1960) y el descenso de la presión ganadera han favorecido la revegetación de las antiguas áreas de cultivo y pastos bien por avance de formaciones naturales de matorral y bosque, bien por la reforestación artificial de extensas lade, [EN] We review the effects of climate variability and land use / land cover changes in the Central Spanish Pyrenees at different spatial and temporal scales. Paleoclimatic studies based upon multi-proxy analyses of lacustrine, glacial and speleothematic deposits, among others, have demonstrated the occurrence of intense climatic fluctuations not only during the Late Upper Pleistocene associated to deglaciation, but also during the Holocene, affecting plant cover distribution, runoff generation, flood frequency, and the spatial organization of human activities, particularly during the 8.2 event, the Bronze Age, the Medieval Climatic Anomaly and the Little Ice Age. The study of the impact of human activity on landscape dynamics during the last 150 years has revealed dramatic changes in plant cover structure and distribution, in both the montane and the sub-alpine belts and, consequently, changes in runoff generation, soil erosion intensity, and sediment sources, whatever the spatial scale used. In general, the maximum human pressure on the territory was reached during the middle of the 19th century, with the cultivation of most of the south-facing slopes up to approximately 1650 m a.s.l., and the frequent use of fire to control shrub colonization, resulting in intense soil erosion and degradation processes, as well as the development of braided rivers with a high torrentiality. Farmland abandonment since the beginning of the 20th century (and, particularly, since the 1960s) and the declining livestock pressure have favoured plant recolonization, with the expansion of shrubs and forests in the old cultivated and grazing areas, the human-induced reforestation of large hillslopes, and the treeline upward in the subalpine belt, in this latter case with the contribution of climate warming. The most outstanding consequences of such an evolution have been: (i) the sustained decline of discharge in the Pyrenean rivers since the 1970s because of increasing actual evapotranspir

Alpine treelines are considered monitors of the effects of climate on forest growth and dynamics. Treelines are expected to react to current climate warming by showing upslope migrations. However, treeline dynamics are often characterized by lagged responses to rising temperatures, that is, treeline inertia. In addition, encroachment within the treeline ecotone seems to be a more widespread response to climate warming than treeline ascent. We investigate how the treeline responds to climate in a Pyrenean site with an intense Mountain pine (Pinus uncinata) regeneration but also abundant dead trees. We use dendrochronology to reconstruct treeline dynamics (growth, tree recruitment, and death) and to build an age structure of Pyrenean Mountain pine forests, and relate them to temperature reconstructions of the study area. We also describe the spatial structure and estimate the size reproductive threshold of pine recruits. The study treeline showed profuse pine recruitment in the 1980s. These recruits were spatially aggregated and reached the 50% probability of reproduction at 24 years old. Most Pyrenean Mountain pines were recruited in the first half of the 18th century, a warm period when growth was stable, while old treeline trees recruited not only in those decades but also in previous warm periods. Pine deaths concentrated in the cool transition between the mid 17th and the early 18th centuries and mainly from 1820 to 1860, when growth declined as a consequence of temperatures rapidly dropping at the end of the Little Ice Age. Only the amount of dead pines at the treeline was negatively related to temperatures, indicating that cool periods cause high adult mortality rates and trigger long-term treeline decline. But this decline was interrupted by intense regeneration and treeline encroachment, two features that characterize recent treeline dynamics in some mountains. This concurs with the view of a rapid response of alpine treelines to climate during the late 20th

Over the last century extraordinary efforts have been devoted to determining soil erosion rates (in units of mass per area and time) under a large range of climatic conditions and land uses, and involving various measurement methods. We undertook a meta-analysis of published data from more than 4000 sites worldwide. The results show that there is extraordinarily high variability in erosion rates, with almost any rate apparently possible irrespective of slope, climate, scale, land use/land cover and other environmental characteristics. However, detailed analysis revealed a number of general features including positive relationships of erosion rate with slope and annual precipitation, and a significant effect of land use, with agricultural lands yielding the highest erosion rates, and forest and shrublands yielding the lowest. Despite these general trends, there is much variability that is not explained by this combination of factors, but is related, at least partially, to the experimental conditions. Our analysis revealed a negative relationship between erosion rate and the size of the study area involved; significant differences associated with differing measurement methods, with direct sediment measurement yielding the lowest erosion rates, and bathymetric, radioisotope and modeling methods yielding the highest rates; and a very important effect of the duration of the experiment. Our results highlight that, when interpreting erosion rates, the experimental conditions involved must be taken into account. Even so, the data suggest that only order of magnitude approximations of erosion rates are possible, and these retain a very large degree of uncertainty. Consequently, for practical purposes such as calculation of global sediment budgets, empirical equations are not a substitute for direct measurements. Our results also show that a large proportion of the experiments have been short-term (less than 3. years), which reduces dramatically the reliability of the estimat

[EN] An exceptional rainfall and hydrological event occurred on 19–21 October 2012 in the central western Pyrenees and was particularly significant in the Upper Aragón River basin and its tributaries, mainly the Irati River. Analysis of historical records showed that, considered separately, the event of 19 and 20 October ranked between the second and fifth highest most extreme daily precipitation events. For the two days combined (with a total between 200 and 260 mm), the precipitation event was the most extreme 2-day event among all observation stations but one. The consequent flood destroyed part of an urban area, and a long stretch of a national road triggered landslides, enlarged the alluvial plain and caused generalised soil erosion in cultivated fields cropped with winter cereals. Badlands in the marls of the Inner Depression yielded high volumes of sediment. The floods in the tributaries were relatively moderate (return periods of 14–42 years), whereas in the Upper Aragón River, the flood corresponded to a return period of approximately 400–500 years and to 142 years at the end of the Yesa reservoir, although difficulties in estimating the discharge increased the uncertainty of these values. The Yesa and Itoiz reservoirs considerably reduced the intensity of the flood in the middle and lower Aragón River and confirmed the importance of the water level in the reservoirs when such rainfall events occur. The water storage in the Yesa reservoir increased from 16% to 53% as a consequence of the event. More integrated studies are necessary to decrease the risks associated with flood hazards. This is particularly the case in mountain areas, where the steep slopes and longitudinal gradients of the rivers shorten the concentration time of floods and increase the energy that erodes channels and riverbanks. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

The Ijuez River drains a small catchment in the Eocene flysch of the Central Pyrenees, with natural and reforested forests and subalpine grasslands above 1700 m. The alluvial plain shows the typical characteristics of braided rivers, with a large accumulation of coarse sediment and a wandering channel. A reach of 4 km has been studied in detail, where the presence of several sedimentary structures reveals the occurrence of various hydrological and geomorphic changes: (i) a fluvial terrace located 3-4 m above the actual channel; (ii) a large debris flow accumulation over the terrace; and (iii) the alluvial plain, which has recently incised into de sediment accumulation. These structures are inferred to be the consequence of land cover changes occurred in the subalpine and montane belts in the last 150 years.

The Marboré Cirque, which is located in the southern Central Pyrenees on the north face of the Monte Perdido Peak (42°40′0″N; 0.5°0″W; 3355 m), contains a wide variety of Holocene glacial and periglacial deposits, and those from the ‘Little Ice Age’ (‘LIA’) are particularly well developed. Based on geomorphological mapping, cosmogenic exposure dating and previous studies of lacustrine sediment cores, the different deposits were dated and a sequence of geomorphological and paleoenvironmental events was established as follows: (1) The Marboré Cirque was at least partially deglaciated before 12.7 kyr BP. (2) Some ice masses are likely to have persisted in the Early Holocene, although their moraines were destroyed by the advance of glaciers during the Mid Holocene and ‘LIA’. (3) A glacial expansion occurred during the Mid Holocene (5.1 ± 0.1 kyr), represented by a large push moraine that enclosed a unique ice mass at the foot of the Monte Perdido Massif. (4) A melting phase occurred at approximately 3.4 ± 0.2 and 2.5 ± 0.1 kyr (Bronze/Iron Ages) after one of the most important glacial advances of the Neoglacial period. (5) Another glacial expansion occurred during the Dark Age Cold Period (1.4–1.2 kyr), followed by a melting period during the Medieval Climate Anomaly. (6) The ‘LIA’ represented a clear stage of glacial expansion within the Marboré Cirque. Two different pulses of glaciation were detected, separated by a short retraction. The first pulse occurred most likely during the late 17th century or early 18th century (Maunder Minimum), whereas the second occurred between 1790 and ad 1830 (Dalton Minimum). A strong deglaciation process has affected the Marboré Cirque glaciers since the middle of the 19th century. (7) A large rock avalanche occurred during the Mid Holocene, leaving a chaotic deposit that was previously considered to be a Late Glacial moraine. © The Author(s) 2014.

[EN] The dynamics of the torrential upper reach of the Ijuez River, Central Spanish Pyrenees, was analyzed in relation to the spatial organization of grain size. The reach is located in the Eocene flysch, which usually acts as a high sediment production area, particularly during periods of intense human activity. The Ijuez Valley was cultivated and densely populated until the middle of the 20th century, resulting in general deforestation and the development of debris flows, shallow landslides, sheet wash erosion and deep gullies. As a consequence, the alluvial plain became characterized by the presence of large quantities of coarse sediment. The spatial organization of sediment showed a progressive downstream decline in the cobble and boulder size, especially in the channel, whereas the remainder of the alluvial plain showed large variability. No trend in the occurrence of the largest boulders was evident throughout the reach, confirming the importance of debris and hyperconcentrated flows in sediment transport. The torrential reach did not have a negative exponential longitudinal profile, in contrast to that usually observed for mountain rivers. This was attributed to the large quantity of heterometric sediment derived from the hillslopes, which resulted in no marked decline in sediment size and consequent change in the longitudinal profile. A recent trend of scouring was detected, reflecting the reduction in sediment supply following farmland abandonment and reforestation, which have reduced connectivity between the hillslopes and the channel., [ES] Se estudia un tramo torrencial en la cabecera del río Ijuez, Pirineo central español, con el fin de analizar su dinámica en relación con la distribución espacial de los sedimentos. Este tramo se instala en el flysch eoceno, que habitualmente se comporta como altamente productor de sedimento, especialmente en condiciones de intensa actividad humana. El valle del río Ijuez fue cultivado y densamente poblado hasta mediados del siglo XX, causando la eliminación de la mayoría de los bosques y dando lugar a flujos de derrubios (debris flows), deslizamientos superficiales, erosión difusa y formación de barrancos muy activos. La consecuencia fue el desarrollo de una llanura aluvial caracterizada por el escombrado de grandes volúmenes de sedimento grueso. La organización espacial de los sedimentos muestra un progresivo descenso en el tamaño de los cantos, especialmente en el cauce actual, y mucho menos en el resto de la llanura aluvial, donde la variabilidad es muy grande. Los grandes bloques no presentan ninguna tendencia a lo largo del curso, reflejando la importancia de los flujos de derrubios e hiperconcentrados en el transporte de sedimento. El tramo torrencial estudiado no muestra un perfil longitudinal exponencial negativo, al contrario de lo que es habitual en los ríos de montaña. Este fenómeno se atribuye a la gran cantidad de sedimentos heterométricos que llegan masivamente desde las laderas, que impiden un marcado descenso en el tamaño del sedimento y el consiguiente ajuste del perfil longitudinal. Se ha detectado una tendencia reciente hacia la incisión del río en sus propios sedimentos, reflejando la reducción en el aporte de estos últimos debido al abandono de tierras y la reforestación, limitando la conectividad entre laderas y cauce.

[EN] There are clear links between supports from the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the overexploitation of aquifers in the upper basin of the Guadiana River. Historically, European supports to agriculture have been linked to the production, which has resulted in the 169 municipalities in the study area, a strong trend towards the expansion of irrigation lands. The implementation of the Single Payment in 2003 implies a decoupling of production supports, going to charge the beneficiaries of supports a subsidy equal to the average of that perceived during the last three years, i.e. from 2003 payments are maintained even though production is zero. However, there are still many payments linked to production, known as coupled payments (primarily those associated with livestock, woody crops, arable crops and irrigated land). These are the ones with higher capacity to affect the environment, and therefore they are which have been considered in this study (except livestock, no directly related to overexploitation of aquifers). To make this paper, ArcGis program has been used, superimposing or comparing different thematic layers: Protected areas, overexploited aquifers and vulnerable areas to nitrates pollution in the Upper Guadiana, the percentage of irrigated hectares in several municipalities, the irrigated area devoted to arable crops and woody crops, and finally support levels of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in each of the selected sectors and for each of the municipalities in the Upper Guadiana in 2009. It is noteworthy that the municipalities with the highest percentage of irrigated area, especially vineyard, receive higher levels of subsidies, despite of using water from overexploited aquifers. In contrast, supports to organic farming are scarce as compensation income from aquifers. This suggests that CAP subsides coupled to woody crops (mainly the vineyard) and herbaceous crops are detrimental for the environmental quality of the study area, especially, [ES] Existen claras relaciones entre las ayudas procedentes de la Política Agraria Común (PAC) y la sobreexplotación de acuíferos en la cuenca alta del rio Guadiana. Históricamente las ayudas de Europa a la agricultura han estado ligadas a la producción, lo que ha ocasionado, en los 169 municipios pertenecientes a la zona de estudio, una fuerte tendencia a la expansión del regadío. La implantación del Pago Único en 2003 implica un desacoplamiento de las ayudas a la producción, pasando a cobrar, los perceptores de las ayudas, un subsidio equivalente a la media de lo percibido durante los tres últimos anos, es decir que a partir de 2003 los pagos se mantienen aunque la producción sea nula. No obstante, aun existen muchos pagos ligados a la producción, conocidos como pagos acoplados (básicamente los asociados a la ganadería, cultivos leñosos, cultivos herbáceos y regadío). Estos son los que tienen una mayor capacidad para afectar al medio ambiente y son, por lo tanto, los que se han tenido en cuenta en este estudio (salvo la ganadería por no relacionarse directamente con la sobreexplotación de acuíferos). Para realizar este trabajo se ha utilizado el programa ArcGis, superponiendo o comparando capas de distintas temáticas: Espacios Naturales Protegidos, Acuíferos Sobreexplotados y Zonas Vulnerables a la Contaminación por Nitratos en el Alto Guadiana, el porcentaje de hectáreas en regadío en los distintos términos municipales, la superficie en regadío dedicada a cultivos herbáceos y cultivos leñosos, y por ultimo, los niveles de ayudas de la Política Agraria Común (PAC) en cada uno de los sectores elegidos y para cada uno de los municipios del Alto Guadiana, en el ano 2009. Entre las conclusiones destaca el hecho de que los municipios con mayor porcentaje de superficie de regadío, especialmente viñedos, reciben los mayores niveles de ayudas a pesar de utilizar agua de acuíferos sobreexplotados. En cambio, las ayudas a la agricultura ecológica son escasas al igual que la