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In this paper, a detailed study on chemical characterization of essential oils (EOs) constituents of leaves and stems of Achillea fragrantissima were carried out using GC-FID and GC–MS analysis employing two different stationary phase columns. In the studied plant which is collected from the central region of Saudi Arabia, trans-sabinyl acetate and trans-sabinol have been identified as the major components. To the best of our knowledge, these components are being reported for the first time as the major constituents in the EOs of A. fragrantissima. The results showed that chief chemical components of both (leaves and stems) oils were found to be almost same, however, their contents varied noticeably from each other. Among 108 identified components in the leaves oil, the major components were trans-sabinyl acetate (20.7 ± 0.00), trans-sabinol (14.9 ± 0.13), artemisia ketone (12.7 ± 0.46), santolina alcohol (10.1 ± 1.30), β-sesquiphellandrene (5.5 ± 0.01), β-thujone (5.1 ± 0.11). Whereas, in the stem oil 85 components were identified and trans-sabinyl acetate (24.0 ± 0.19), trans-sabinol (19.2 ± 0.01), artemisia ketone (16.3 ± 0.74), santolina alcohol (10.4 ± 1.50), and β-sesquiphellandrene (4.8 ± 0.01) were found to be the major components. Among the identified components form both oils, 23 components were specific to only leaves oil, whereas 85 components were found to be common in both oils.

The essential oil of Santolina pectinata aerial parts (SP oil) was extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by Gas Chromatography (GC) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS). 34 components were identified, accounting 59.4% of the total oil, which (Z)-heptadeca-10,16-dien-7-one (ZHD) was the major component with 28 % of the oil. The protective effect of this oil on the corrosion of mild steel (MS) in 1M HCl solution was tested by the measurements of Weight loss (WL), potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). From WL measurements, the inhibiting effect was raised with the increasing of both concentration inhibitor and temperature. PDP curves led to a mixed-type inhibitor. The charge transfer process mainly controls the results of EIS measurements. The SP oil adsorption not only was discovered to obey Langmuir isotherm but showed a chemical interaction as well. The computational methods such as density functional theory (DFT), Monte Carlo (MC) and radial distribution function (RDF) simulations were also performed to analyze the possible contribution of (Z)-heptadeca-10,16-dien-7-one (ZHD) to the corrosion prevention effect of global oil.

O obxectivo desta tese doutoral é estudar a variabilidade morfolóxica, a taxonomía e a historia evolutiva do xénero Santolina L. (Anthemideae, Compositae), un xénero distribuído polo oeste do Mediterráneo. No traballo realízase un estudo das relacións filoxenéticas entre os taxones incluídos no xénero, e as súas relacións cos restantes xéneros da subtribo Santolininae (Anthemideae, Compositae) foron inferidas con métodos Bayesianos e de Parsimonia, a partir de secuencias dos espaciadores do ADN nuclear ribosómico, ETS (External Transcribed Spacers) e ITS (Internal Transcribed Spacers) e catro rexións non codificantes do ADN cloroplástico. Os resultados mostran que Santolina é monofilético e que a introgresión, e a aloploidización son forzas evolutivas importantes no xénero. Os resultados da análise bioxeográfica sitúan a orixe do xénero hai 9 Ma, na era Tortoniense do Mioceno, ligado ao proceso de aridificación e desecación polo peche dos estreitos bético e rifeño. A crise mesiniense e a reapertura da comunicación a través do estreito de Xibraltar, explican a diversificación dos grandes grupos do xénero e se revelan varios procesos de vicarianza. Inclúense como resultado cinco novas combinacións no xénero e o recoñecemento da singularidade de S. ascensionis e de S. villosa respecto a S. decumbens.

Homemade herbal preparations from the East of Spain are the witness of traditional medicine inherited from the ancient complex formulas of herbal teas and medicinal wines. In this study, we document the use of traditional alcoholic beverages, identify their ingredients, almost exclusively botanical, record the local medicinal uses of these mixtures, and discuss patterns of distribution of this knowledge in regions of eastern Spain, the Balearic Islands and Andorra. We determine marker species and relevant patterns of herbal formulas in the different regions of the territory. Homemade liquors and liqueurs are consumed for their digestive and tonic-restorative properties but they also play in some cases an important social role. The elderly remember other medicinal uses such as aperitif, emmenagogue, or antidiarrheal, for some of the most popular preparations. The herbal liqueur formulas include predominantly Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, and Apiaceae species. Herbs (58%), fruits (28%), and mixtures of both (12%) are ingredients of liquors and wines, being the aerial parts the most frequent in terms of species (30%) and records (49%). Dictamnus hispanicus, Santolina villosa, Salvia blancoana subsp. mariolensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus vulgaris, and Clinopodium serpyllifolium subsp. fruticosum are the species most frequently used. Others species used to a lesser extent as Polygonatum odoratum, Thymus moroderi, and Saxifraga longifolia are restricted to locally homemade preparations because their collection and uses require special knowledge of the rare or endemic flora. Sustainability of these practices is strongly limited by the overall loss of local traditional knowledge and by the limited availability of most of the wild species; some of them are endangered or threatened mainly by the loss of their natural habitats. Cultivation and domestication are a promising alternative to collecting from wild populations. The cultivation of Thymus moroderi in the province of Alicante and Polygonatum odoratum in the province of Teruel are good examples. There is a notable decrease in the complexity of the formulas registered throughout the nearly 15 years of the study. This is interpreted as a consequence of a loss of knowledge, less accessibility to wild resources, and changes in traditions and preferences.

Artemisia subviscosa Turcz. Ex Bess. is an endemic species of the Baikal region. It grow on the territory of the Barguzinsky region of the Republic of Buryatia. Raw materials for the study were collected during the expedition work in 2016. By the method of hydrodistillation the essential oils from the aerial parts and individual organs (inflorescences, leaves, stems) of the A. subviscosa was extract. The greatest yield of essential oil is registered in flowers (0.7%). The composition was determined by chromatography-mass spectrometry on an Agilent Packard HP 6890 gas chromatograph with a quadrupole mass spectrometer (HP MSD 5973N) as a detector. More than 70 components have been identified and it has been established that the composition of essential oils is represented by mono- and sesquiterpene compounds, the first predominantly accumulate in the inflorescences, the others – in leaves and stems and the aerial parts. The dominant components are santolina triene (2.9–33.1%), germacrene D (2.1–8.8%), β-selinene (6.4–9.3%), α-selinene (6.4–8.6%), α-bulnesene (1.9–2.7%), δ-cadinene (1.7–2.4%), caryophyllene oxide (2.1–9.9%), caryophyllene (11.6–17.5%), γ-muurolene (1.4–4.0%), aciphyllene (2.8–3.2%) , acyphyllic acid (4.5–10.5%), spathulenol (0.8–3.7%).

This research examines the impact of urban development on three major development areas (Mesa del Sol, Volcano Mesa, and Santolina) in Albuquerque, New Mexico, based on the past pattern of urban gr...

Essential oils of Ocimum basilicum (L.), Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) and Achillea santolina (L.) were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed using gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (MS). Oil-in-water nanoemulsions (10% active ingredient) were prepared through a high-energy (ultrasonication) emulsification process. Nanoemulsions were characterized by viscosity, pH, thermodynamic stability, droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) measurements. The plant oils and their nanoemulsions showed considerable acaricidal activity against the mold mite, Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) (Sarcoptiformes: Acaridae). In a contact toxicity bioassay and 48 h post treatment, O. basilicum oil was the most toxic, followed by A. fragrantissima and A. santolina, where LC50 values were 8.4, 14.1 and 21.8 µl/cm2, respectively. LC50 for benzyl benzoate, a standard acaricide was 9.8 µl/cm2. Upon fumigation, responses also varied according to the test oil. Based on the 48-h LC50 values, the same manner of activity was also observed, where O. basilicum was the most toxic followed by A. fragrantissima and A. santolina. When prepared as nanoemulsions (particle size from 78.5 to 104.6) and tested as fumigants, toxicity of the oils was increased drastically with LC50 values of 2.2, 4.7, and 9.6 µl/l air for O. basilicum, A. fragrantissima and A. santolina, respectively. The oils showed a moderate to strong residual acaricidal activity, where O. basilicum oil was the most effective. The results suggest that appropriate nanoemulsions containing the tested oils can be developed to control T. putrescentiae after the required toxicological assessments.

The plant produce metabolites can be improved by biotechnology methods, one of the most common techniques is to establish a regeneration system through plant tissue culture. Santolina chamaecypatissus L. is a valuable aromatic species used in pharmaceutical industry and ornamental field. Inefficient propagations methods limit agricultural utilization of S. chammaecypatissus to produce volatile chemical constituents. Here, we reported a rapid and reliable in vitro propagation protocol for S. chamaecypatissus that showed higher accumulation of volatile compounds. In vitro cultures were obtained by an optimized sterilization protocol using 75% ethanol combined with 1% sodium hypochlorite. Callus induction from stems was highest with 1 mg/L benzyladenine (BA) and 0.2 mg/L naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). The shoot regeneration was improved by adjusting plant growth regulators to an optimal concentration of 0.04 mg/L BA and 0.1 mg/L NAA followed by root induction with 0.1 mg/L NAA. Obtained micropropagated plants were morphologically stable and grew vigorously with a 100% survival rate in soil matrix consisting of sand, gravel, and perlite. Evaluation of the chemical composition of volatiles via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of micropropagated plants on field to regular field plants revealed that the volatile composition accumulated in micropropagated plants higher than regular field plants. The rapid and efficient micropropagation protocol established in this study strongly contributes to overcome limitations of cultivation of S. chamaecypatissus, a valuable feedstock for extraction of bioactive phytochemicals.

The extracts of the medicinal plants Achillea santolina and Raphanus sativus have been reported to show anti-cancer effects in vitro. However, the cellular and molecular mechanism of these effects are not clear yet. To compare the apoptotic effects of these plant extracts on different cancer cell lines in vitro. The phenolic, flavonoids and antioxidant activity were determined in the crude extracts. Then, Caco2 (colon adenocarcinoma), HepG2 (hepatic carcinoma), MCF7 (breast cancer) and the normal WISH (amniotic cell line) were treated in vitro with different concentrations of crude extracts for 72 hours. The half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) were detected by MTT assay, while cell cycle and apoptosis were assessed by flow cytometry. The methanolic extract of R. sativus seeds (cultivar: Balady) showed higher phenolic content (791.98 mg/d.wt) and higher antioxidant activity (93%) than those of the ethanolic extract of A. santolina (340.23 mg/d.wt) and (72.72%), respectively. R. sativus methanolic extract showed lower flavonoids contents (1.025 mg/g d.wt) than A. santolina ethanolic extract (24.66 mg/g d.wt). Treatment of Caco2, HepG2, MCF7 and WISH cell lines with A. santolina extract showed IC50 of 17.67 µg/ml, 15.12 µg/ml, 42.19 µg/ml and 50.99 µg/ml, respectively. While treatment of the same cell line with R. sativus showed IC50 of 40.77 µg/ml, 27.42 µg/ml, 54.16 µg/ml and 86.37 µg/ml respectively. A. santolina and R. sativus extracts induced similar cell cycle arrest in Caco2 at G1 phase by 42.4%. This study indicates that A. santolina has a potent anticancer activity against the selected cancer cell lines.

Background:Curcuma spp. (Zingiberaceae) are used as a spice and coloring agent. Their rhizomes and essential oils are known for medicinal properties, besides their use in the flavoring and cosmetic industry. Most of these biological activities were attributed to volatile and nonvolatile secondary metabolites present in the rhizomes of Curcuma spp. The metabolite variations among the species and even cultivars need to be established for optimized use of Curcuma spp.Objectives: We compared the phytochemical profiles of rhizomes and their essential oils to establish the variability among seven cultivars: five of Curcuma longa L. (Alleppey Supreme, Duggirala Red, Prathibha, Salem, Suguna) and two of C. aromatica Salisb. (Kasturi Araku, Kasturi Avidi). The GC-MS and LC-MS-based analyses were employed to profile secondary metabolites of these selected cultivars.Methods: Rhizomes of Curcuma spp. were subjected to hydro-distillation to collect essential oil and analyzed by GC-MS. The methanol extracts of fresh rhizomes were subjected to LC-MS analyses. The compounds were identified by using the relevant MS library databases as many compounds as possible.Results: The essential oil content of the cultivars was in the range of 0.74–1.62%. Several compounds were detected from the essential oils and rhizome extracts by GC-MS and LC-MS, respectively. Of these, 28 compounds (13 from GCMS and 15 from LCMS) were common in all seven cultivars, e.g., α-thujene, and diarylheptanoids like curcumin. Furthermore, a total of 39 new compounds were identified from C. longa L. and/or C. aromatica Salisb., most of them being cultivar-specific. Of these compounds, 35 were detected by GC-MS analyses of essential oils, 1,2-cyclohexanediol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-, and santolina alcohol, to name a few. The other four compounds were detected by LC-MS of the methanolic extracts of the rhizomes, e.g., kaempferol-3,7-O-dimethyl ether and 5,7,8-trihydroxy-2′,5′-dimethoxy-3′,4′-methylene dioxyisoflavanone.Conclusions: We identified and recorded the variability in the metabolite profiles of essential oils and whole rhizome extracts from the seven cultivars of Curcuma longa L. and C. aromatica Salisb. As many as 39 new metabolites were detected in these seven Indian cultivars of Curcuma spp. Many of these compounds have health benefits.

The typification of the species names Santolina ericoides and S. villosa (Asteraceae) are revisited. The name Santolina ericoides has been applied to plants distributed in the Iberian Peninsula and S France, and the name S. villosa has been applied to a taxon endemic to Spain. These species names have recently been neotypified from specimens kept at the herbarium of the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle de Paris at P, and at the herbarium PAL (PAL-Gr), respectively. These two type designations are briefly discussed and superseded here because these neotypifications were unnecessary being contrary to Art. 9.8 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Shenzhen Code). In this work, all relevant sources, specimens, illustrations, and references cited in the protologues are carefully evaluated for the purpose to fix the application of the names. We have chosen and designated the best admissible lectotype for these two names from the original material.

Santolina ericoides Poiret in Lamarck (1805: 504) Type (lectotype, designated here):—[illustration] “ ABROTONUM foemina, Dodonaei ” in Daléchamps (1586: 938) (Fig. 1)., Published as part of Ferrer-Gallego, P. Pablo, Sáez, Llorenç, Wajer, Jacek, Giacò, Antonio & Peruzzi, Lorenzo, 2021, Typification of the names Santolina ericoides and S. villosa (Asteraceae) revisited, pp. 233-240 in Phytotaxa 509 (2) on page 235, DOI: 10.11646/phytotaxa.509.2.6, http://zenodo.org/record/5426172, {"references":["Dalechamps, J. (1586) Historia generalis plantarvm, [Pars prima]. Apud Gvlielmvm Rovillivm, Lugduni, 1095 pp. [https: // archive. org / details / bub _ gb __ NGRilRpGGIC / page / n 949 / mode / 2 up]"]}

Thesis Abstract Background: Although anticancer treatment with chemotherapy is effective, cancer response occurs due mainly to reduction of cancer stem cells. The development of cancer stem cell is regulated by several genes including NOTCH1, SIX1 and WNT1. Aim: we have found recently that treatment of Caco2, HepG2 and MCF-7 with Achillia santolina or Rahanus sativus results antitumor effect. In this study we aimed to evaluate the effect of these natural product on the gene expressions NOTCH1, SIX1 and WNT1 in Caco2 and MCF-7. Materials and Methods: Colon adenocarcinoma cell line (Caco2) and Breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) as well as normal amniotic cell line (WISH) were treated with 110 IC50 concentration of Achillea santolina and Raphanus sativus extracts to compared to 110 IC50 of cisplatin as a reference chemotherapy drug. Total RNA was extracted after 72 hours of treatment and incubation then cDNA was prepared for reverse transcriptase PCR for NOCH1, WNT1, and SIX1. Results: R. sativus treatment highly decreased NOTCH1 expression in MCF7 and Caco2 cell lines, while decreased SIX1 gene expression in Caco2 cell line and WNT1 in MCF7 cell line. On the other hand, A. santolina observably decreased the WNT1 gene expression in MCF7 cell line. Conclusion: The crude extracts of R. sativus decreased the developmental gene expression of NOTCH1, SIX1 in Caco2 cell line as same as on NOTCH1 and WNT1 in MCF-7 cell line more than cisplatin chemotherapy. While the A. santolina crude extract decrease the expression of WNT1 in MCF-7 cell line more than cisplatin chemotherapy.

Climate change is dramatically threatening biodiversity. Narrowly distributed species are especially exposed to extinction risk due to their narrow ecological niche. We used Species Distribution Models at fine spatial resolution (50m) to investigate changes in the distribution of three range-restricted species of Santolina endemic to the Mediterranean Basin (S. decumbens, S. ligustica, S. pinnata). We assessed the future potential range under an optimistic and a pessimistic scenario, and analysed distribution change taking into account three different ranges: the distributional range (calculated as convex hull), an area 5 km larger than the distributional range, and a buffer (1 km) around occurrences. Santolina ligustica is expected to dramatically reduce its range under both scenarios, Santolina decumbens is expected to increase its range under both scenarios and Santolina pinnata is expected to dramatically reduce its range under the pessimistic scenario and to increase it under the optimistic one. Moreover, in the optimistic scenario, S. ligustica and S. pinnata show a very high range loss in all areas but the range gain is higher in the largest area than in the other two areas. This result suggests that, in the future, suitable areas will occur mainly outside of the current distributional range and that assisted colonization may be necessary to assure species survival. Differently, the third species has a lower range loss and higher range gain within the distributional range and in the buffer around occurrences, suggesting the possibility of survival in microrefugia within its distributional range despite a wide reduction in suitable habitat. These results might help to design strategies for species conservation in face of future climate change.

Santolina chameacyparissus (Santo) is an evergreen plant which is traditionally used for its anti-inflammatory effects in various diseases. In this study, we aimed to explore the effects of Santo in non-small cell lung cancer cells. We extracted volatile oil from the plant and evaluated cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and motility effects of the extract on two non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines; one is a patient derived and the other one is a commercially available A549 cells. We also identified its components via GC/MS and investigated possible targets of the major components of the plant using qPCR and docking studies. Cytotoxicity tests showed dose dependent cell killing activity and flow cytometry assays exposed apoptotic effects of Santo. The essential oil also remarkably decreased migration rate of A549 cells, therefore we evaluated the expression levels of epithelial to mesenchymal transition related genes E-cadherin and Vimentin ratio, ZEB1 and SNAIL and another motility related gene Ezrin. Santo did not change the expression of EMT related genes but decreased Ezrin levels. According to the results of the GS/MS analysis, Artemisia ketone and Camphor were identified as major molecules of the extract. Docking analysis also revealed that artemisia ketone, the major component of the Santo extract, potentially showed strong binding to the active site of ezrin protein and both artemisia ketone and camphor had ability to bind DNA. The results of the present study indicate that Santo and its components artemisia ketone and camphor are promising anti-cancer agents, and their potential in targeting DNA and oncogenic proteins in the lung cancer cells seems worth to focus on this plant in cancer related drug discovery science.

The present research study was undertaken to evaluate the nematicidal property of four indigenous medicinal plants viz., Ferula oopoda, Zataria multiflora, Achillea santolina and Nepeta cateria against Meloidogyne incognita at banana orchards of District Lasbela, Balochistan, Pakistan. Crude extracts, essential oils and fixed oil of these selected plants were tested separately. The crude extracts of Z. multiflora and F. oopoda showed higher mortality as compared to A. santolina and N. cateria. The results showed a maximum mortality of 76% by Z. multiflora and F. oopoda at highest dose of 3 g/ liter which was followed by 72% of N. cateria and 49% by A. santolina at the same dose. However, essential oils of A. santolina showed the highest mortality (79%) as compared to Z. multiflora (74%), F. oopoda (70%) and N. cateria (68%) at the same dose of 1.2 ml/ liter. While results of fixed oils showed maximum mortality of 74% by F. oopoda followed by 71%, 70% and 66% in Z. multiflora, A. santolina and N. cateria, respectively at a formulation of 3ml/ liter. A nematicide Furadan was kept as standard for efficacy comparison.

Achillea santolina is medicinal plant widely used in folk medicine for gastrointestinal disorders, anti-inflammatory and anti-diuretic. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that about 350 million people are considered to be at risk of contracting leishmaniasis especially among people living in the developing countries. This research will be the first time that evaluate antileishmanial activity of essential oils of A. santolina before and after flowering. Wild plants of Achillea santolina were collected from the Kalamoon Mountains in Syria before and after flowering. Essential oil of wild plants was identified by GC/MS analysis. The activity of essential oil was evaluated against five bacterial strains by well diffusion method and Promastigote lysis percentage was determined by an MTT assay. Chemical composition of essential oils of A. santolina was variable. According to our results the samples from Assal Al-ward and Deir Atiyah after flowering gave light yellow oils and the main constituents were Borneol 17.34% and Camphor 27.69% respectively. While the sample before flowering from Assal Al-ward gave blue oil due to presence Azulene 0.69% which absence in oils after flowering and the main component was 2-Cyclohexen-1-ol, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) 13.05%. The essential oil of A. santolina at concentration 30% after flowering from Deir Atyiah showed the highest inhibitory effect on Klebsiella pneumonia with diameter 21 mm. Also essential oil of A. santolina before flowering gave the highest antileishmanial activity with an IC50 value (56.17 μg/mL). The antileishmanial activity of oils from Achillea santolina before flowering was better than after flowering, in contrast the antibacterial activity of oils before flowering was less than after flowering. Depending on the results, the oils from plants before flowering It could be constitute a potential treatment in the future.

Temperature stress is becoming the major concern for plant scientists worldwide due to climate change. Temperature stress has devastating effects on plant growth and metabolism. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of climatic seasonal change on the yield and composition of essential oil of the plant, Achillea fragrantissima. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) used to analyze the essential oil collected during dry and wet seasons revealed it has 25 compounds. The major compounds were santolina alcohol (5.31), camphor (4.3), and cedrene (9.01) during winter months, while the percentages of α-cubebene (17.1%), spathulenol (1.54) and globulol (5.2) were highest during summer season. The analysis of essential oil in the two seasons revealed that there are different amounts and composition of essential oils. The antioxidant activity of the essential oil of the plant shows higher activity of IC50 0.11±0.01g/L and Ec50 0.25±0.02 g/L during winter than in summer. However, the reducing capacity of standard substances used (ascorbic acid and α-Tecopherol) were 0.033±0.001 and 0.93±0.07 g/L for DPPH and 0.091±0.002 and 0.026±0.002 g/L for FRAP method, respectively. These results showed that A. fragrantissima is a natural source of active compounds, and antioxidant properties, and the difference in chemical composition leads to changes in the antioxidant activity of the plant, which contributes to seasonal change. Key words: Achillea fragrantissima, antioxidant, seasonal vibration, essential oil.

Chemical composition of rhizome essential oils of Amomum agastyamalayanum and A. newmanii from south India were analyzed by gas chromatographic techniques. Major constituents in A. agastyamalayanum rhizome oil were allo-aromadendrene (16.2 %), β-pinene (8.7 %) and (E)-caryophyllene (8.5 %). Santolina triene (42.2 %) and α-pinene (17.1 %) were the major constituents in A. newmanii rhizome oil. Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes and other constituents in A. agastyamalayanum/A. newmanii rhizome oils were 16.3 %/73.7 %, 10.4 %/ 6.9 %, 48.8 %/13.1 %, 19.4 %/3.4 % and 2.1 %/1.0 %, respectively. This is the first chemical profiling study of these two endemic Amomum species.

Ex situ conservation of Bulgarian endemic plant Achillea thracica Velen. was achieved by successful in vitro cultivation of mono-nodal segments on MS-B5 medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L BA for 20 days and subsequent transferring of regenerated plants on hormone free basal MS-B5 medium for root development and accumulation of leaf biomass. In vitro multiplicated plants were successfully acclimated in a growth chamber with 100% survival. GC–MS analysis of the essential oils resulted in the identification of 30, 10 and 28 compounds in in situ grown, in vitro cultivated and ex vitro adapted plants, respectively, constituting 77.7%, 99.9% and 84.1% of the total oils. The wider variety of compounds was found in the essential oils of in situ and ex vitro adapted plants where santolina alcohol, β-eudesmol, 1,8-cineole, germacrene D, α-cadinol and artemisia alcohol were the principal components comprising 68.7% and 69.3 of the oil, respectively. In vitro cultivated plants consist of mainly 1,8-cineole, germacrene D and artemisia alcohol representing 87% of the oil. Different growth conditions affect the composition of essential oils, suggesting their possible involvement in the process of adaptation and surviving in changing environmental conditions.

The antimicrobial properties of essential oil from various Santolina species have not been investigated enough in the previous studies dealing with the biological activities of medicinal plants. In Tunisia, Santolina chamaecyparissus L. (Asteraceae) is the only Santolina species recorded and is used as vermifuge and emmenagogue. The chemical composition, antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils from the flowerheads and roots of spontaneous S. chamaecyparissus growing in Tunisia and the chemical composition which leads to the Tunisian chemotype are investigated here for the first time. Essential oils isolated by hydro distillation from flowerheads and roots of S. chamaecyparissus were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Two methods served for antimicrobial assays of the essential oils: diffusion in a solid medium and micro-well dilution assay. Antifungal tests were carried out by the agar incorporation method. Sixty-seven constituents were identified from the essential oil of the flowerhead. The major constituents were: 1,8-cineole and β-eudesmol. Two non identified compounds were present at the highest concentration in root oil. Flowerhead oil was characterized by high contents in monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes oxygenated compounds. The flowerhead essential oil demonstrated potent of antibacterial properties against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC, with MIC of 0.625μg/ml. These findings demonstrate that the flowerhead essential oils of S. chamaecyparissus have excellent antibacterial properties and for this reason they could contribute to decrease the problem of microbial resistance to antibiotics.

In this study, we extracted the essential oils of the stem, leaf, and flower of Achillea filipendulina, analyzed them, and studied their antibacterial properties. Of 16, 53, and 35 compounds identified in the stem, leaf, and flowers, respectively, only five are present in all three segments of the plant. The essential oil of the stem was mainly composed of neryl acetate, spathulenol, carvacrol, santolina alcohol, and trans-caryophyllene oxide. However, the main identified components of leaf were 1,8-cineole, camphor, ascaridole, trans-isoascaridole, and piperitone oxide and the main components of the flower oil were ascaridole, trans-isoascaridole, 1,8-cineole, p-cymene, and camphor. The extracted oil from different segments demonstrated varying antibacterial properties against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, demonstrated by disk, minimum inhibitory concentration, and minimum bactericidal concentration methods. These suggest that the application of all segments of aerial parts of A. filipendulina may have a better therapeutic effect in fighting pathogenic systems.

The intensification of agricultural practices contributes to the decline of many taxa, such as insects and weeds. Wildflower species have an important environmental impact on rural biodiversity since plant-pollinator networks play a key role in both landscape aesthetics and environmental functionality. Due to their scarcity and/or disappearance in conventional agroecosystems, wildflowers are now being used in strips to restore the agro-environment. In this study, fifteen wildflower species were sown in order to verify their ecological performance in terms of a plant-pollinator interaction while in laboratory the several chemicals emitted by the flowers were identified. Flowering periods were concentrated in the spring, although flowering periods extended to the hot and dry summer months in some species. An extreme variability was found in terms of quantitative and qualitative pollinator-attractiveness (i.e., bees, bumblebees, hoverfly, bee flies and butterflies). Most wildflower species emit a volatiles belonging above all to one of the several chemical classes. A hierarchical cluster analysis of the different volatile emissions did not fully correlate with the botanical taxa of the respectives wildflowers. Often, single chemical compounds prevailed, such as β-ocimene and limonene among monoterpenes hydrocarbons, santolina alcohol in the case of oxygenated monoterpenes, or (Z)- or (E)-3-hexenol acetate for non-terpenes derivatives. It is believed that these chemical compounds can play an ecological role in plant-pollinator food webs. The hypothesis that the chemistry of the volatiles implies a specialized plant-pollinator co-evolution was confirmed by a significant regression (p

The demand for aromatic and medicinal plants (AMPs) is growing worldwide, and most of them are from the wild collection. Today there is a consensus that for industrial purposes the AMPs must be cultivated. Many studies have shown the importance of the collection strategy used to guarantee the plant regeneration, and soil protection against erosion process in mountainous areas in the Mediterranean region. In this work, during three-year monitoring period we compared in four AMPs two harvest strategies by cutting biomass in 25% (BHI25) and 50% (BHI50) of oregano (Origanum bastetanum L.), lavender (Lavandula lanata L.); sage (Salvia lavandulifolia V.); and santolina (Santolina rosmarinifolia L.) in order to assess their effect on essential-oil content, and to be consistent with both plant and soil conservation in Mediterranean steeply sloping areas. The experimental plots were located in Lanjarón (Granada, SE Spain), on a 20% slope. According to the findings the strategy BHI50 of fresh herb of oregano, lavender, sage, and santolina produced essential-oil yield of 13.2 ± 1.74, 17.3 ± 1.69, 9.7 ± 5.21, and 10.8 ± 2.00 L·ha-1, respectively. Since significant differences were found between BHI25 and BHI50 strategies for harvest and distillation of aromatic plants, we recommend a rational harvest, leaving the 50% of the plant biomass in the field to avoid the soil degradation. In addition, with this rational harvest strategy encourages the sustainable AMP cultivation without significant alterations for essential-oil yields, and at the same time guaranteeing the regrowth, and conservation of them in its habitat. Therefore, encouragement local decision-making measures regarding environmental compatibility, social acceptability and economic viability in land use and management will be crucial. Otherwise, the inappropriate harvest of aromatic shrubs in mountain areas compromises land conservation.

Essential oil of Santolina pectinata lag. aerial parts was obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed, for the first time, by using gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS (EI)). 33 components were identified which a non terpenic oxygenated compound i.e., (Z)-heptadeca-10,16-dien-7-one strongly dominated the oil composition with 28%. The structure of this natural compound was determined for the first time by a Positive electro spray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI (+) -TOF-MS, one-dimensional and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

Cumin seeds were collected from agro-ecological sub-regions comprising of major cumin growing areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat state, India, to analyze chemical composition of essential oil. The study area was located between the geographical co-ordinates 21°78′ 32″N, 71°33′85″E to 26°21′ 28″ N, 74°37′61″ E. Maximum and minimum EO yield (35.9–28.4%) were obtained in cumin from AESR 2.4 and 5.1 respectively. GC–MS analysis of EO indicated the preponderance of terpenic hydrocarbons in the AESR 2.4 (53.85%) and decrease in AESR 2.1 (32.62%) while cuminaldehyde content was more (39.90%) in AESR 4.2 and less (25.84%) in 2.4. The prominent terpenic compounds included γ-terpinene, β-pinene, santolina triene, α-terpinene, α-pinene and β-thujene, the concentration of these compounds varied with AESRs. Cumic alcohol (10.33–14.40%), anethol & estragol (4.03–9.15%) were the major alcohols with cymol (2.9–4.26%) and geraniol (0.02–2.39%) in traces. Total phenolic content in the various AESRs ranged from 41.50 (AESR 5.1) to 58.61 mg GAEg −1 seeds (AESR 2.3) while the flavonoid content in the AESRs ranged between 27.14–36.03 mg QE g −1 seeds, being least in 4.2 and highest in 5.1. The study revealed that the average radical scavenging percentage of methanol seed extract does not vary with the different AESRs (94.98–99.05%), as well as EC 50 value is also same (15.31–15.38 mg BHTE) for samples from different AESRs. Cumin from the AESRs with favourable minimum and maximum temperature and rainfall showed high cuminaldehyde bearing pleasant aroma whereas the AESRs with biotic/abiotic stresses showed higher terpenic compounds with increased pungency.

The present study evaluates the antibacterial activity of essential oils (EOs) of some widely used Moroccan aromatic herbs namely, Thymus satureioides, Achillea ageratum, Cotula cinerea, Salvia officinalis, and Salvia aucheri subsp. blancoana. The chemical composition was characterized by means of GC-MS and a total of 47 components were identified accounting for more than 96.5% of the total oils. A. ageratum oil was particularly rich in terpene alcohol which included artemisyl acetate (70.1%), yomogi alcohol (12.4%) and artemisia alcohol (7.1%). The T. satureioides EO was characterized by high contents of carvacrol (24.1%), borneol (18.1%), p-cymene (7.0%), camphene (6.8%) and γ-terpinene (6.5%). The C. cinerea EO contained trans-thujone (41.4%), cis-verbenyl acetate (24.7%) and santolina triene (7.2%) as major constituents. S. officinalis EO had a high content of trans-thujone (20.2%), 1,8-cineole (19.2%), camphor (14.7%), while the S. aucheri subsp. blancoana EO was characterized by camphor (34....

The chemical composition of 18 oil samples of Santolina africana isolated from aerial parts at full flowering, collected in three locations in eastern Algeria was determined by GC(RI), GC/MS and 13C-NMR analysis. The major components were: germacrene D, myrcene, spathulenol, &alpha, bisabolol, &beta, pinene, 1,8-cineole, cis-chrysanthenol, capillene, santolina alcohol, camphor, terpinen-4-ol and lyratol. The chemical composition appeared homogeneous and characterized by the occurrence of four derivatives which exhibited a conjugated alkene dialkyne moiety. They were identified for the first time in an essential oil from S. africana. The collective oil sample exhibited moderate antimicrobial and antioxidant activities whereas the anti-inflammatory activity presented a real potential. IC50 value of Santolina africana essential oil (0.065 &plusmn, 0.004 mg/mL) is 5-fold higher than IC50 value of NDGA used as positive control.

Santolina corsica Jordan & Fourr. – Secteur Cintu, commune de Palasca, au nord du village, env. 2,7 km au sud de l’embouchure de l’Ostriconi, en bordure d’un ouvrage DFCI au Nord de Monte Negro, vers Bocca di Cento Chiave, quelques pieds dans un maquis à Pistacia lentiscus L., 9.5.2017, PanaÏotis, C. pointage GPS. Cette espèce, localisée dans trois zones, Capicorsu, Cortenais-Boziu et Fium’Orbu, n’était pas connue du secteur Cintu (voir GAMISANS & JEANMONOD, Asteraceae: 299-303, 1998). Elle est à rechercher sur les affleurements schisto-calcaires disséminés entre le col de San Colombanu, l’Ostriconi et l’Osari, où d’autres populations pourraient être découvertes.

BACKGROUND This research aimed at improving knowledge as to the chemical composition and the antibacterial and anti-cancer activities of the essential oil of Waldheimia glabra, a wild plant from the Himalayan Mountains. RESULTS The results obtained by GC-MS showed that spathulenol, 9-tetradecenol, thujopsene, α-thujone, santolina alcohol and terpinen-4-ol were the main constituents of Waldheimia glabra essential oil. These results were confirmed by HS-SPME GC-MS analysis that also reported high amounts of artemisia alcohol and camphor. Disc diffusion assay suggested a mild antibacterial activity against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Finally, a dose-response correlation was observed between Waldhemia glabra essential oil concentration and viability of human breast adenocarcinoma cells MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7. CONCLUSIONS Together with the GC-MS method, HS-SPME GC-MS proved to be a reliable technique to characterise the chemical composition of essential oil obtained from aromatic plants. Further studies will focus on W. glabra phytochemicals and their biological activity, in order to support traditional uses of the plant. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

The inhibitive action of Santolina chamaecyparissus extract as a natural inhibitor on corrosion of 304 stainless steel in 3.5% NaCl solution was investigated by potentiodynamic polarization, EIS, and SEM techniques. The results indicate that the extract shows mixed-type inhibition behavior and inhibition efficiency of 86.9% was achieved with the addition of 1.0 g L−1 extract. Impedance curves show that increasing Santolina concentration increases charge transfer resistance and decreases double layer capacitance. The corrosion rate decreased with increasing concentration of extract and increased with the increase in temperature of the medium. Adsorption of the extract obeyed the Langmuir isotherm model.

The inhibitive action of extract of Santolina chamaecyparissus (Santolina) as a green inhibitor on corrosion of 304 stainless steel (304 SS) in 6 M HCl solution was investigated by weight loss, potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques, and scanning electron microscopic observations. The results of potentiodynamic polarization studies indicate that the extract shows mixed-type inhibition behavior and inhibition efficiency of 95.5 pct was achieved with the addition of 1.0 g L−1 extract. Impedance curves show that increasing Santolina concentration increases charge transfer resistance and decreases double-layer capacitance. The corrosion rate decreased with increasing concentration of extract and increased with the increase in temperature of the medium. The effect of temperature and related activation parameters was studied. Adsorption of the extract obeyed the Langmuir isotherm model. The negative value of the standard free energy of adsorption in the presence of the extract suggests the spontaneous adsorption of Santolina on 304 stainless steel surface. The inhibition efficiencies obtained from electrochemical tests were in good agreement with those obtained from weight loss measurements.

Chemical composition and antibacterial and antibiotic interacting activities of essential oils obtained from the flowering branchlets of seven Artemisia species grown in Iran were investigated. Antibacterial activity against multi-drug resistance extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) positive Escherichia coli was also investigated. Major compounds in different Artemisia oils were α-phellandrene in A. absinthium, camphor in A. annua, 1,8-cineol and borneol in A. kulbadica, β-thujone in A. persica, cis-verbenol in A. santolina and 1-phenyl-penta-2,4-diene in A. scoparia. Artemisia oils showed synergism with antibiotics, in particular ciprofloxacin and nitrofurantoin, against all 5 tested ESBL positive E. coli. A. santolina and A. kulbadica showed promising synergistic activity with antibiotics. Using bioautography, compounds such as cis-verbenol, trans-verbenol and ρ-cymene-8-ol were identified as active compounds of A. santolina, and β-pinene, 1,8-cineol and borneol as active components of A. kulbad...

The essential oil (EO) of Cotula cinerea Del collected in the region of Oued Souf (South-eastern Algeria) during two stages (flowering and fruiting), gave a performance that are 0.0801% ± 0.0117% at the flowering stage; and 0.391% ± 0.0664% at the fruiting stage. The chemical study of the (EO) of C. cinerea Del, analyzed by GCMS, showed the presence of 22 chemical compounds in the flowering period with the dominance of: 3-Carene (30.99%), Thujone (21.73%), Santolina triene (18.58%) and Camphor (6.21%). While 21 chemical compounds were obtained during the fruiting period with the dominance: Thujone (28.78%), 3-Carene (15.90%), Eucalyptol (15.13%), Santolina triene (13.38%) and Camphor (7.49%).Viewpoint chemical kinetics and composition, it was noticed that during the flowering stage the plant has produced eight compounds that are absent during the fruiting period. While seven other compounds appeared only during fruiting. It appears the antibacterial of (EO) has C. cinerea Del The sensitivity of the bacterial strains tested ; And E. faecium, E.coli, M. morganii, P. vulgaris, S. aureus and A. baumannii has shown great sensitivity; the strain P. aeruginosa have shown stiff resistance with every concentrations of (EO). As we did not notice any differences significant in the diameters of inhibition with all strains in two stages of growth.

Achillea filipendulina is an aromatic plant of family Asteraceae with bright yellow colour flowers. The objective of the study was to extract the essential oil from the flowers of the selected plant using Clevenger apparatus, to analyse the chemical composition of the oil using GC-MS and to screen the essential oil for its antibacterial property against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. GC-MS results revealed that the main chemical constituents present in the oil were trans 2,7 Dimethyl 4,6 octadien-2-ol (27.93%), borneol (21.44%) and santolina triene (7.13%). The results of agar well diffusion assay revealed that the oil showed antibacterial activity against all the tested bacteria except Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of oil was determined against the sensitive bacteria. MIC values against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were similar (0.312% v/v) and for Bacillus cereus, MIC value was found to be (0.156%). Results indicated the great antibacterial potential of oil of this plant against gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Santolina species are widely used in traditional medicine in the Mediterranean region for their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, digestive, and analgesic properties. S. impressa, a Portuguese endemism, is traditionally recognized for its beneficial anti-inflammatory properties in several gastrointestinal affections and is also used in oropharyngeal infections. Aim of the study The present study aims to characterize the essential oil of S. impressa growing in Portugal and validate its traditional uses by assessing the anti-inflammatory potential of its essential oil at concentrations without toxicity. The antifungal properties of the oil are also addressed, as well as, the putative mechanism of action underlying these effects. Material and methods The essential oil was obtained in accordance with the European Pharmacopoeia and characterized by GC and GC-MS. The anti-inflammatory potential of the oil was assessed on LPS-stimulated macrophages, through the production of nitric oxide (NO) using the Griess reaction. Putative mechanisms of action included the role of the oil as a NO scavenger, as well as its effect on the expression of two key pro-inflammatory enzymes, iNOS and COX-2 by Western blot analysis. The antifungal effect of the oil was evaluated according to the CLSI guidelines on several yeast and filamentous strains and on two major virulence factors in Candida albicans, namely germ tubes and biofilms. Ultrastructural modifications on dermatophytes were also unveiled by transmission electron microscopy. Results S. impressa essential oil was primarily characterized by the presence of monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes, being the main compounds β-pinene (22.5%), 1,8-cineole (10.0%), limonene (9.1%), camphor (8.1%) and β-phellandrene (8.0%). A significant decrease (ca 60.0%) in nitrite levels was observed in LPS-stimulated macrophages treated with the oil without affecting cell viability. This effect could be explained by a great reduction on iNOS expression (85.0% inhibition), thus underpinning the anti-inflammatory potential of the oil. The oil also showed a fungicidal effect, being more active against Cryptococcus neoformans, Epidermophyton floccosum and Trichophytum rubrum. For these dermatophytes, significant ultrastructural modifications in cell wall structure were detected. Strikingly, for C. albicans, the oil showed a significant anti-infective potential (at 0.07 mg/mL for germ tube inhibition and 0.02 mg/mL for biofilm disruption) before fungal growth inhibition occurred. Conclusions Our results validate the main traditional use ascribed to S. impressa, namely its anti-inflammatory effect. In addition, an antifungal potential is pointed out, thus corroborating the antimicrobial uses and adding new value to an endemic species poorly recognized by the industry.

Essential oils of Achillea biebersteinii , A. santolina and A. mellifolium were obtained by hydrodistillation, then analyzed using gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (MS). The obtained oils showed considerable toxic and growth inhibitory activities against the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). The time of exposure, the technique used and the stage treated, all were activity-determinant factors, where A. biebersteinii oil showed the strongest insecticidal activity and the adult stage was more susceptible than larvae. Using topical application, LC 50 values of A. biebersteinii , A. santolina and A. mellifolium oils after 96 h of exposure of larvae were 30.3, 47.8 and 62.3 μg/mg insect, respectively. In this case, LC 50s against adults were ranged between 21.8 and 50.7 μg/mg insects. Using treated filter papers, the LC 50 values after 96 h of exposure against larvae were ranged between 124.9 and 212.0 μL/cm 2 , while against adults were ranged between 113.0 and 196.8 μL/cm 2 . In the fumigant bioassay, LC 50s after 96 h of exposure against larvae were between 41.7 and 93.2 μL/L air, while against adults were between 36.1 and 80.6 μL/L air. When prepared as nano-emulsions and tested as fumigants, toxicity of oils was increased dramatically, where LC 50 values after 96 h of exposure against larvae and adults were ranged between 11.0 and 27.5 μL/L air and 8.8 and 21.3 μL/L air, respectively. When exposed as 2nd instar larvae to sub-lethal doses-treated grains, the developmental course, life span and F 1 progeny of T. castaneum were significantly affected, where the oil of A. santolina showed the strongest activity. All of these developmental disruptions led to a great reduction in the number of adults that undergo successful emergence.

Essential oils of Achillea biebersteinii, Achillea santolina and Achillea mellifolium were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The plant oils were tested for their toxic and repellent activities against the Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium (Everts) (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). T. granarium was sensitive to the oils via topical application, contact and fumigation bioassays, where A. biebersteinii oil was the most toxic regardless of the technique used. Using topical application, a dosage of 15 μg/mg insect of A. biebersteinii oil was sufficient to kill 100 and 83.2.0 % after 7 days exposure of adults and 2nd instar larvae, respectively. Meanwhile, twice this concentration of A. santolina and A. mellifolium oils caused 90.4 (72.5 %) and 73.8 (60.1 %) adult and larval mortality after 7 days, respectively. Using fumigation and 7 days exposure, a concentration of 50.0 μl/l air of A. biebersteinii oil displayed the strongest activity (percentage adult and larval mortalities of 100.0 and 88.0 %), respectively, while A. santolina and A. mellifolium oils at the same concentration caused 92.5 (76.8 %) and 76.1 (61.3 %) adult and larval mortality, respectively. The three oils were strongly repellent to the larvae and adults of T. granarium. The repellent activity was time and concentration-dependent, where A. biebersteinii oil was the most effective, even though at low concentrations (percentage repellency of 100 and 81.0 % were recorded against adults and larvae after 6 h exposure to a concentration of 0.22 μl/cm2, respectively). Results suggested the potential use of Achillea oils as natural grain protectants against T. granarium.

The insecticidal activity of essential oils obtained from DCM extracts of Psoralea corylifolia (Fabaceae) against pupa of Epilachna insect was investigated in a series of laboratory experiments. Insecticidal activity was determined at 24 ± 4°C and 68 ± 5% R.H., in dark conditions. The DCM extracts of the dried seeds of the plants were subjected to Column chromatography and the oil obtained was then subjected to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger type apparatus. The major components in these essential oils are identified using GC-MS spectroscopy and their insecticidal activity was tested. The predominant components in the oil of Psoralea corylifolia are toluene, alpha-pinene, L-beta-pinene, beta-pinene, 3-carene, limonene, Gamma terpinene, terpinolene, alpha santolina alcohol, 4-terpineol, Cyclohexene, 1-methyl-4-(1-methyl ethenyl), caryophyllene, alpha caryophyllene, thumbergene. The mortality rate of the agricultural pests was checked against 1%, 5% and 10% conc. of essential oil. The essential oil from Psoralea corylifolia shows strong toxic effect against pupa of Epilachna insect. Finding insecticidal activity is of great importance as using plant extracts as insecticides, are biodegrable and do not leave toxic residues results in better crop and better human health.

The chemical variability of the essential oils isolated from Moroccan chamomile [Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall.] full flowering aerial parts, was evaluated. C. mixtus populations were collected from nine regions in Morocco: Benguerir, Bouznika, Chefchaouane, Kenitra, Meknes, Oujda, Settat, Sidi Alal Ibahraoui and Tamesna. The essential oils were isolated by hydrodistillation and analysed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The yields of the essential oils ranged between 0.1% and 0.8% (v/d.w.). Only five of the nine essential oil samples analysed showed good correlation after agglomerative cluster analysis based on the chemical composition of the essential oils. These samples (Benguerir, Kenitra, Settat, Meknes and Tamesna) were characterized by the dominance of camphor (14–27%), β-myrcene (3–17%) and santolina triene (3–15%). All these and Chefchaouane essential oils showed a blue colour, whereas Oujda, Bouznika and Sidi Alal Ibahraoui essential oils were yellow. β-Myrcene (3–17%), trans-β-farnesene (18%) and 2-tridecanone (16%) dominated the Chefchaouane essential oil, whereas trans-β-farnesene (43%) was the main component in the Oujda essential oil. 2-Methyl-2-trans-butenyl methacrylate (34%) dominated sample Bouznika, while santolina alcohol and 1,8-cineole (17% and 12%, respectively) in the Sidi Alal Ibahraoui essential oil. The variability of Moroccan chamomile essential oil may reflect negatively upon its quality, biological activity and commercial value, thus harvests from the wild population should be avoided. To meet the high-quality standards and production efficiency, cultivation techniques adapted to local soil types and weather conditions, as well the correct selection of plant varieties most suited to the market should be followed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The chemical composition of the essential oils isolated from the aerial parts of Anthemis arvensis L. subsp. arvensis, Anthemis cretica subsp. messanensis (Brullo) Giardina & Raimondo and from flowers and leaves of Anthemis cretica subsp. columnae (Ten.) Frezén were determinated by GC–FID and GC–MS analyses. Torreyol (85.4%) was recognised as the main constituent of the Anthemis arvensis subsp. arvensis essential oil, while in the essential oils of Anthemis cretica subsp. messanensis, collected on the rock and cultivated in Hortus Botanicus Panormitanus, (E)-chrysanthenyl acetate (28.8 and 24.2% resp.), 14-hydroxy-α-humulene (8.1 and 5.3% resp.), santolina triene (8 and 5.8% resp.) and α-pinene (6.7 and 5.4% resp.) prevailed. 18-cineole (13.3 and 12.2% resp.), was the main component of both flower and leaf oils of Anthemis cretica subsp. columnae together with δ-cadinene (9.0 and 8.2% resp.) and (E)-caryophyllene (8.3 and 5.6% resp.).

The present study evaluates Linnaeus' concept of S. rosmarinifolia, as well as its interpretation and application. Additional original material of S. rosmarinifolia L. is cited and discussed. Santolina minor Mill., S. linearifolia Jordan & Fourr., S. chamaecyparissus L. subsp. viridis Rouy var. β subintegrifolia Rouy, S. rosmarinifolia f. robusta Sennen & Pau, and S. rosmarinifolia L. var. foliosa Sennen & Elias are lectotypified. An illegitimate name (S. rosmarinifolia Mill.) is identified. The current status of these names is discussed. Six names not validly published are found. The nomenclatural synonyms of S. rosmarinifolia are provided.

The phylogenetic relationships between taxa of the Santolina rosmarinifolia aggregate were studied using TNT and PAUP parsimony analyses of a morphological data matrix that encompasses 2516 individuals. Two major clades can be distinguished: clade 1 comprises S. semidentata, S. melidensis, S. impressa, S. orocarpetana and S.×oblongifolia; clade 2 comprises S. ageratifolia, S. canescens and the subspecies arrabidensis, rosmarinifolia, castellana, pectinata and montiberica. No qualitative characteristics or groups of characteristics clearly differentiate these clades. Monophyly of the S. rosmarinifolia aggregate is supported. Most populations appear highly polyphyletic. Santolina impressa, S. melidensis, S. ageratifolia and the S. rosmarinifolia subspecies rosmarinifolia and arrabidensis form a monophyletic group whereas Santolina orocarpetana is polyphyletic and Santolina oblongifolia, S. canescens, S. semidentata and the subspecies castellana, pectinata and montiberica are all paraphyletic. The internal branches have an average length of 20.1 steps, with a standard deviation of 8.5 steps. The basal branch of several taxa shows a much higher number than average (20.1 steps) over the tree, which suggests that reasonably good clade support is present for these taxa. Santolina semidentata is the most variable taxon of this aggregate. The presence of a capitulum with three rows of involucral bracts is the ancestral condition in the aggregate. The results suggest that this aggregate arose from an ancient polyploid. A key to the taxa is provided.