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Nearly half of the human genome is made of transposable elements (TEs) whose activity continues to impact its structure and function. Among them, Long INterspersed Element class 1 (LINE-1 or L1) elements are the only autonomously active TEs in humans. L1s are expressed and mobilized in different cancers, generating mutagenic insertions that could affect tumor malignancy. Tumor suppressor microRNAs are ∼22nt RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate oncogene expression and are frequently downregulated in cancer. Here we explore whether they also influence L1 mobilization. We show that downregulation of let-7 correlates with accumulation of L1 insertions in human lung cancer. Furthermore, we demonstrate that let-7 binds to the L1 mRNA and impairs the translation of the second L1-encoded protein, ORF2p, reducing its mobilization. Overall, our data reveals that let-7, one of the most relevant microRNAs, maintains somatic genome integrity by restricting L1 retrotransposition., European Research Council (ERC) ERC-2009-StG 243312, French National Research Agency (ANR) ANR-11-LABX-0028-01 ANR-15-IDEX-01, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 3546, University Hospital Federation (FHU) OncoAge, MINECO PEJ-2014-A-31985 SAF2015-71589-P, MINECO by European Regional Development Fund SAF2015-71589-P, Spanish Government RYC-2016-21395, Career Integration Grant-Marie Curie FP7-PEOPLE-2011-CIG-303812

We thank Dr. Francisco Sanchez-Luque, Dr. Martin Reijns, and Priscilla Chin for helpful discussions and comments on the manuscript. This work was funded by grants from the Wellcome Trust 107665/Z/15/Z and Royal Society grant RGS\R1\191368 to S.M., and from MINECO SAF2015-71589-P and Ramon y Cajal grant RYC-2016-21395 to S.R.H. Figures were designed using Smart Servier Medical Art (https://smart.servier.com)., Around half of the genomes in mammals are composed of transposable elements (TEs) such as DNA transposons and retrotransposons. Several mechanisms have evolved to prevent their activity and the detrimental impact of their insertional mutagenesis. Despite these potentially negative effects, TEs are essential drivers of evolution, and in certain settings, beneficial to their hosts. For instance, TEs have rewired the antiviral gene regulatory network and are required for early embryonic development. However, due to structural similarities between TE-derived and viral nucleic acids, cells can misidentify TEs as invading viruses and trigger the major antiviral innate immune pathway, the type I interferon (IFN) response. This review will focus on the different settings in which the role of TE-mediated IFN activation has been documented, including cancer and senescence. Importantly, TEs may also play a causative role in the development of complex autoimmune diseases characterized by constitutive type I IFN activation. All these observations suggest the presence of strong but opposing forces driving the coevolution of TEs and antiviral defense. A better biological understanding of the TE replicative cycle as well as of the antiviral nucleic acid sensing mechanisms will provide insights into how these two biological processes interact and will help to design better strategies to treat human diseases characterized by aberrant TE expression and/ or type I IFN activation., Wellcome Trust, European Commission 107665/Z/15/Z, Royal Society of London RGS\R1\191368, MINECO SAF2015-71589-P, Spanish Government RYC-2016-21395

Epigenetic silencing defends against LINE-1 (L1) retrotransposition in mammalian cells. However, the mechanisms that repress young L1 families and how L1 escapes to cause somatic genome mosaicism in the brain remain unclear. Here we report that a conserved Yin Yang 1 (YY1) transcription factor binding site mediates L1 promoter DNA methylation in pluripotent and differentiated cells. By analyzing 24 hippocampal neurons with three distinct single-cell genomic approaches, we characterized and validated a somatic L1 insertion bearing a 3ʹ transduction. The source (donor) L1 for this insertion was slightly 5ʹ truncated, lacked the YY1 binding site, and was highly mobile when tested in vitro. Locus-specific bisulfite sequencing revealed that the donor L1 and other young L1s with mutated YY1 binding sites were hypomethylated in embryonic stem cells, during neurodifferentiation, and in liver and brain tissue. These results explain how L1 can evade repression and retrotranspose in the human body.

Human stem cells harbor significant potential for basic and clinical translational research as well as regenerative medicine. Currently ~ 3000 adult and ~ 30 pluripotent stem cell-based, interventional clinical trials are ongoing worldwide, and numbers are increasing continuously. Although stem cells are promising cell sources to treat a wide range of human diseases, there are also concerns regarding potential risks associated with their clinical use, including genomic instability and tumorigenesis concerns. Thus, a deeper understanding of the factors and molecular mechanisms contributing to stem cell genome stability are a prerequisite to harnessing their therapeutic potential for degenerative diseases. Chemical and physical factors are known to influence the stability of stem cell genomes, together with random mutations and Copy Number Variants (CNVs) that accumulated in cultured human stem cells. Here we review the activity of endogenous transposable elements (TEs) in human multipotent and pluripotent stem cells, and the consequences of their mobility for genomic integrity and host gene expression. We describe transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms antagonizing the spread of TEs in the human genome, and highlight those that are more prevalent in multipotent and pluripotent stem cells. Notably, TEs do not only represent a source of mutations/CNVs in genomes, but are also often harnessed as tools to engineer the stem cell genome; thus, we also describe and discuss the most widely applied transposon-based tools and highlight the most relevant areas of their biomedical applications in stem cells. Taken together, this review will contribute to the assessment of the risk that endogenous TE activity and the application of genetically engineered TEs constitute for the biosafety of stem cells to be used for substitutive and regenerative cell therapies, S.R.H. and P.T.R. are funded by the Government of Spain (MINECO, RYC-2016- 21395 and SAF2015–71589-P [S.R.H.]; PEJ-2014-A-31985 and SAF2015–71589- P [P.T.R.]). GGS is supported by a grant from the Ministry of Health of the Federal Republic of Germany (FKZ2518FSB403).

Half the human genome is made of transposable elements (TEs), whose ongoing activity continues to impact our genome. LINE-1 (or L1) is an autonomous non-LTR retrotransposon in the human genome, comprising 17% of its genomic mass and containing an average of 80–100 active L1s per average genome that provide a source of inter-individual variation. New LINE-1 insertions are thought to accumulate mostly during human embryogenesis. Surprisingly, the activity of L1s can further impact the somatic human brain genome. However, it is currently unknown whether L1 can retrotranspose in other somatic healthy tissues or if L1 mobilization is restricted to neuronal precursor cells (NPCs) in the human brain. Here, we took advantage of an engineered L1 retrotransposition assay to analyze L1 mobilization rates in human mesenchymal (MSCs) and hematopoietic (HSCs) somatic stem cells. Notably, we have observed that L1 expression and engineered retrotransposition is much lower in both MSCs and HSCs when compared to NPCs. Remarkably, we have further demonstrated for the first time that engineered L1s can retrotranspose efficiently in mature nondividing neuronal cells. Thus, these findings suggest that the degree of somatic mosaicism and the impact of L1 retrotransposition in the human brain is likely much higher than previously thought., United States Department of Defense BC051386, United States Department of Health & Human Services National Institutes of Health (NIH) - USA NIH National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke (NINDS) 1R03NS087290-01, ALS Therapy Alliance 2013-F-067, Marie Curie IRG project FP7-PEOPLE-2007-4-3-IRG: SOMATIC LINE-1, European Research Council (ERC) ERC-STG-2012-233764, Howard Hughes Medical Institute IECS-55007420, Wellcome Trust-University of Edinburgh Institutional Strategic Support Fund (ISFF2), Plan Nacional de I+D+I FIS-FEDER-PI11/01489 FIS-FEDER-PI14/02152 PCIN-2014-115-ERA-NET NEURON II, CICE-FEDER-P09-CTS-4980, CICE-FEDER-P12-CTS-2256, United States Department of Health & Human Services National Institutes of Health (NIH) - USA NIH National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke (NINDS) R03NS087290, ICREA

The cell culture-based retrotransposition reporter assay has been (and is) an essential tool for the study of vertebrate Long INterspersed Elements (LINEs). Developed more than 20 years ago, this assay has been instrumental in characterizing the role of LINE-encoded proteins in retrotransposition, understanding how ribonucleoprotein particles are formed, how host factors regulate LINE mobilization, etc. Moreover, variations of the conventional assay have been developed to investigate the biology of other currently active human retrotransposons, such as Alu and SVA. Here, we describe a protocol that allows combination of the conventional cell culture-based LINE-1 retrotransposition reporter assay with short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNA (miRNAs) mimics or inhibitors, which has allowed us to uncover specific miRNAs and host factors that regulate retrotransposition. The protocol described here is highly reproducible, quantitative, robust and flexible, and allows the study of several small RNA classes and various retrotransposons. To illustrate its utility, here we show that siRNAs to Fanconi anaemia proteins (FANC-A and FANC-C) and an inhibitor of miRNA-20 upregulate and downregulate human L1 retrotransposition, respectively. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Crossroads between transposons and gene regulation’.

Retrotransposons are a type of transposable element (TE) that have amplified to astonishing numbers in mammalian genomes, comprising more than a third of the human and mouse genomes. Long interspersed element class 1 (LINE-1 or L1) retrotransposons are abundant and currently active retroelements in the human and mouse genomes. Similarly, long terminal repeat (LTR)-containing retrotransposons are abundant in both genomes, although only active in mice. LTR- and LINE-1-retroelements use different mechanisms for retrotransposition, although both involve the reverse transcription of an intermediate retroelement-derived RNA. Retrotransposon activity continues to effect the germline and somatic genomes, generating interindividual variability over evolution and potentially influencing cancer and brain physiology, respectively. However, relatively little is known about the functional consequences of retrotransposition. In this study, we have synthesized and characterized reverse transcriptase inhibitors specific for mammalian LINE-1 retrotransposons, which might help deciphering the functional impact of retrotransposition in vivo.

Summary L1 retrotransposon-derived sequences comprise approximately 17% of the human genome. Darwinian selective pressures alter L1 genomic distributions during evolution, confounding the ability to determine initial L1 integration preferences. Here, we generated high-confidence datasets of greater than 88,000 engineered L1 insertions in human cell lines that act as proxies for cells that accommodate retrotransposition in vivo. Comparing these insertions to a null model, in which L1 endonuclease activity is the sole determinant dictating L1 integration preferences, demonstrated that L1 insertions are not significantly enriched in genes, transcribed regions, or open chromatin. By comparison, we provide compelling evidence that the L1 endonuclease disproportionately cleaves predominant lagging strand DNA replication templates, while lagging strand 3'-hydroxyl groups may prime endonuclease-independent L1 retrotransposition in a Fanconi anemia cell line. Thus, acquisition of an endonuclease domain, in conjunction with the ability to integrate into replicating DNA, allowed L1 to become an autonomous, interspersed retrotransposon.

Cell differentiation is a central process in development and in cancer growth and dissemination. OCT4 (POU5F1) and NANOG are essential for cell stemness and pluripotency; yet, the mechanisms that regulate their expression remain largely unknown. Repetitive elements account for almost half of the Human Genome; still, their role in gene regulation is poorly understood. Here, we show that the dioxin receptor (AHR) leads to differentiation of human carcinoma cells through the transcriptional upregulation of Alu retrotransposons, whose RNA transcripts can repress pluripotency genes. Despite the genome-wide presence of Alu elements, we provide evidences that those located at the NANOG and OCT4 promoters bind AHR, are transcribed by RNA polymerase-III and repress NANOG and OCT4 in differentiated cells. OCT4 and NANOG repression likely involves processing of Alu-derived transcripts through the miRNA machinery involving the Microprocessor and RISC. Consistently, stable AHR knockdown led to basal undifferentiation, impaired Alus transcription and blockade of OCT4 and NANOG repression. We suggest that transcripts produced from AHR-regulated Alu retrotransposons may control the expression of stemness genes OCT4 and NANOG during differentiation of carcinoma cells. The control of discrete Alu elements by specific transcription factors may have a dynamic role in genome regulation under physiological and diseased conditions., Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad [BFU2011-22678, SAF2014-51813-R to P.M.F-S.]; Junta de Extremadura [GR10008, GR15008]; Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Cáncer (RTICC); Carlos III Institute; Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness [RD12/0036/0032]; FPI Fellowship from the Junta de Extremadura (to A.M.H.); Marie Curie IRG project (FP7-PEOPLE-2007-4-3-IRG: SOMATIC LINE-1, in part to A.M.); CICE-FEDER-P09-CTS-4980, CICE-FEDER-P12-CTS-2256, Plan Nacional de I+D+I 2008–2011 and 2013–2016 (FIS-FEDER-PI11/01489, FIS-FEDER-PI14/02152), PCIN-2014-115-ERA-NET NEURON II (to J.L.G.P.); European Research Council [ERC-Consolidator ERC-STG-2012-233764]; International Early Career Scientist grant from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute [IECS-55007420]; European Union FEDER program. Funding for open access charge: Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad [BFU2011-22678, SAF2014-51813-R to P.M.F-S.].

It has been reported previously that the C2-L1Tc protein located in the Trypanosoma cruzi LINE (long interspersed nuclear element) L1Tc 3′ terminal end has NAC (nucleic acid chaperone) activity, an essential activity for retrotransposition of LINE-1. The C2-L1Tc protein contains two cysteine motifs of a C2H2 type, similar to those present in TFIIIA (transcription factor IIIA). The cysteine motifs are flanked by positively charged amino acid regions. The results of the present study show that the C2-L1Tc recombinant protein has at least a 16-fold higher affinity for single-stranded than for double-stranded nucleic acids, and that it exhibits a clear preference for RNA binding over DNA. The C2-L1Tc binding profile (to RNA and DNA) corresponds to a non-co-operative-binding model. The zinc fingers present in C2-L1Tc have a different binding affinity to nucleic acid molecules and also different NAC activity. The RRR and RRRKEK [NLS (nuclear localization sequence)] sequences, as well as the C2H2 zinc finger located immediately downstream of these basic stretches are the main motifs responsible for the strong affinity of C2-L1Tc to RNA. These domains also contribute to bind single- and double-stranded DNA and have a duplex-stabilizing effect. However, the peptide containing the zinc finger situated towards the C-terminal end of C2-L1Tc protein has a slight destabilization effect on a mismatched DNA duplex and shows a strong preference for single-stranded nucleic acids, such as C2-L1Tc. These results provide further insight into the essential properties of the C2-L1Tc protein as a NAC.

A comparative analysis of 40 Trypanosoma cruzi L1Tc elements showed that the 2A self-cleaving sequence described in viruses is present in them. Of these elements, 72% maintain the canonical 2A motif (DxExNPGP). A high percentage has a conserved point mutation within the motif that has not been previously described. In vitro and in vivo expression of reporter polyproteins showed that the L1Tc2A sequence is functional. Mutations within certain L1Tc2A sequences affect the efficiency of the cleavage. The data indicate that the L1Tc2A sequence may be influencing the L1Tc enzymatic machinery determining the composition and level of the translated products. The residues located immediately upstream of the 2A consensus sequence increase the cleaving efficiency and appear to stabilize the relative amount of translated products.

Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas' disease, a parasitism which affects millions of people in Central and South America (43). Apart from the impact on human health, T. cruzi has been extensively studied due to the interesting molecular characteristics that the Trypanosomatidae family has, such as polycistronic transcription, trans splicing, RNA editing, nonchromatin condensation into chromosomes during cell division (27), and a high percentage of repeated sequences. Approximately 15% of the T. cruzi genome is made of mobile retroelements. Among them, long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons (38), SINE (34), and LINE retrotransposons (21, 30) have been widely described. SINEs are the most abundant elements and are probably mobilized by LINEs (4, 30). There are about 1,000 copies of the non-LTR retrotransposon L1Tc per T. cruzi haploid genome (4), which has been suggested to confer a significant genomic polymorphism and a high degree of plasticity to the parasite (11, 39). L1Tc is actively transcribed in the three stages of the parasite life cycle (21) and codes for the enzymatic machinery involved in its retrotransposition including AP endonuclease, 3′ phosphatase, 3′ phosphodiesterase (28, 31), reverse transcriptase (RT) (13), and RNase H (29) activities. The C-terminal domain of the L1Tc element contains two cysteine motifs of the C2H2 type, which are structurally homologous to the zinc fingers of transcription factors of multicellular organisms (21). This C2H2 motif has been also observed in some non-LTR retroelements included in the R2 clade, the trypanosome CRE/SLACS clade, the nematode NeSL clade, and the Giardia lamblia GENIE family (5, 12, 20). Mobilization of non-LTR retrotransposons occurs by a mechanism termed target-primed reverse transcription (TPRT), originally described for the insect R2Bm non-LTR element (19, 24). In TPRT, the endonuclease encoded by the element cleaves the genomic DNA minus strand, generating a 3′ hydroxyl end that is used as a primer by the element-encoded reverse transcriptase for first-strand cDNA synthesis using the element RNA as template. Some non-LTR retrotransposons, including L1Tc, encode an RNase H activity (29) which may be responsible for removing the RNA from the resulting RNA/cDNA hybrid. Following second-strand cleavage, the host factors involved in DNA synthesis or the RT encoded by the element (13) synthesize the second-strand cDNA. Thus, the integrated LINEs contain structural hallmarks such as frequent 5′ truncation, 3′ poly(A) tails, and variable-length target site duplications. Retroviruses and LTR retrotransposons utilize a distinct retrotransposition mechanism where double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) generation in the cytoplasm is mediated by RT and gag-nucleic acid chaperone (NAC) activities (40), and then this dsDNA is subsequently integrated into the chromosomal DNA. NAC activities encoded by Drosophila melanogaster I factor and mouse L1 non-LTR retroelements have been reported (9, 23). I-factor NAC activity relies on ORF1 in a region containing CCHC, similar to that described in the gag proteins from retroviruses and some LTR retroelements (9). Homologous CCHC regions have been described in several clades of the non-LTR group of retrotransposons (20). In contrast, the mouse L1 NAC activity is associated with a region without known homology to the previously mentioned gag proteins (23). The wide distribution of this domain argues that NAC activity is a general requirement for retrotransposition of non-LTR elements, as it has been described previously for the mobilization of retroviruses and LTR retroelements. As diversity is one of the major characteristics of LINEs due to host-LINE coevolution, divergences of the location and sequence of the domain responsible for NAC activity should be expected (9, 23). In the present paper, we show that the protein encoded by the C-terminal end of the LINE L1Tc, C2-L1Tc, has in vitro NAC activity. This C-terminal domain contains two cysteine motifs of the C2H2 type (21), similar to that present in the TFIIIA family of transcription factors. C2-L1Tc promotes annealing of complementary oligonucleotides, prevents melting of perfect DNA duplexes, and does not affect melting of mismatched DNA duplexes. Furthermore, C2-L1Tc, as well as some synthetic peptides covering the C2H2 region and the basic residues upstream of them, facilitates, in competitive displacement assays, the strand exchange between DNAs to form the most stable duplex DNA. The differential ability of the C2-L1Tc protein to bind different types of nucleic acids is probably related to its function in the mobilization and integration mechanism of L1Tc.

The deduced amino acid sequence of the region downstream of the reverse transcriptase (RT) motif of the Trypanosoma cruzi L1Tc non-LTR retrotransposon shows a significant homology with the sequence coding for proteins with RNase H activity from different organisms and retroelements. The 25-kDa His(6)-tagged recombinant protein bearing only the L1Tc RNase H domain, named RHL1Tc, exhibits RNase H activity as measured on the [(3)H]poly(rA)/poly(dT) hybrid used as substrate as well as on specific homologous and heterologous [(32)P]RNA/DNA hybrids. The mutation of the conserved aspartic acid at position 39 of the enzyme catalytic site, but not of the serine at position 56 (non-conservative amino acid), abolishes protein RNase H activity. The RNase H activity of the RHL1Tc protein is Mg(2+)-dependent, and it is also active in the presence of the Mn(2+) ion. The optimal condition of RNase H activity is found at pH 8 and 37 degrees C, although it also has significant enzymatic activity at 19 degrees C and pH 6. However, it cannot be excluded that the RNase H activity level and its optimal conditions may be different from that of a protein containing both RT and RNase H domains.

The shuttling serine/arginine rich (SR) protein SRSF1 (previously known as SF2/ASF) is a splicing regulator that also activates translation in the cytoplasm. In order to dissect the gene network that is translationally regulated by SRSF1, we performed a high-throughput deep sequencing analysis of polysomal fractions in cells overexpressing SRSF1. We identified approximately 1500 mRNAs that are translational targets of SRSF1. These include mRNAs encoding proteins involved in cell cycle regulation, such as spindle, kinetochore, and M phase proteins, which are essential for accurate chromosome segregation. Indeed, we show that translational activity of SRSF1 is required for normal mitotic progression. Furthermore, we found that mRNAs that display alternative splicing changes upon SRSF1 overexpression are also its translational targets, strongly suggesting that SRSF1 couples pre-mRNA splicing and translation. These data provide insights on the complex role of SRSF1 in the control of gene expression at multiple levels and its implications in cancer. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02028.001, eLife digest Genes contain the instructions to make proteins. These instructions are first transcribed to produce an intermediate molecule called a messenger RNA (mRNA), which is then translated to produce the protein. However, gene sequences are often interrupted by ‘introns’, sections of DNA that do not code for protein, and these introns must be removed from the mRNA molecules via a process called ‘splicing’ before the protein is produced. Splicing can also be used to ‘mix and match’ sections of gene sequences to produce slightly different versions of the same protein in a process called ‘alternative splicing’. SRSF1 is one of a family of proteins that control both types of gene splicing but also promotes the translation of specific mRNAs. To date only a few of the genes whose translation is regulated by SRSF1 have been identified. Here, Maslon, Heras et al. have used human cells that artificially produce more SRSF1 protein than normal to identify those genes whose translation is regulated by SRSF1. Over 1500 ‘target genes’ were found; many of which encoded proteins that are involved in cell division—and cells with less SRSF1 than normal failed to divide properly. Maslon, Heras et al. also found a link between alternative splicing and protein translation: many of the mRNAs that were spliced differently in cells that over-produced SRSF1 were also genes whose translation was affected by SRSF1. Since uncontrolled cell division, or defects in mRNA splicing or protein synthesis are all often linked to cancer, these discoveries might provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying this disease. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.02028.002

Retrotransposons make up roughly 50% of the mammalian genome and have played an important role in genome evolution. A small fraction of non-LTR retrotransposons, LINE-1 and SINE elements, is currently active in the human genome. These elements move in our genome using an intermediate RNA and a reverse transcriptase activity by a copy and paste mechanism. Their ongoing mobilization can impact the human genome leading to several human disorders. However, how the cell controls the activity of these elements minimizing their mutagenic effect is not fully understood. Recent studies have highlighted that the intermediate RNA of retrotransposons is a target of different mechanisms that limit the mobilization of endogenous retrotransposons in mammals. Here, we provide an overview of recent discoveries that show how RNA processing events can act to control the activity of mammalian retrotransposons and discuss several arising questions that remain to be answered.

El copyright pertenece a Oxford University Press. La publicación original está disponible en http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/?code=nar&.cgifields=code, L1Tc is the best represented autonomous LINE of the Trypanosoma cruzi genome, throughout which several functional copies may exist. In this study, we show that the first 77 bp of L1Tc (Pr77) (also present in the T. cruzi non-autonomous retrotransposon NARTc, in the Trypanosoma brucei RIME/ingi elements, and in the T. cruzi, T. brucei and Leishmania major degenerate L1Tc/ingi-related elements [DIREs]) behave as a promoter element that activates gene transcription. The transcription rate promoted by Pr77 is 10–14-fold higher than that mediated by sequences located upstream from the T. cruzi tandemly repeated genes KMP11 and the GAPDH. The Pr77 promoter-derived mRNAs initiate at nucleotide +1 of L1Tc, are unspliced and translated. L1Tc transcripts show a moderate half life and are RNA pol II dependent. The presence of an internal promoter at the 5′ end of L1Tc favors the production of full-length L1Tc RNAs and reinforces the hypothesis that this mobile element may be naturally autonomous in its transposition., This work was supported by BMC2003–00834 from Plan Nacional IþDþI (MEC, Spain) and PAI ref. P05-CVI-01227 (Junta de Andalucı´ a, Spain). S.R.H. was supported by a MEC Predoctoral Fellowship, Spain. Funding to pay the Open Access publication charge was provided by PAI CVI-155 (Junta de Andalucia, Spain).

More than half of the human genome is made of transposable elements whose ongoing mobilization is a driving force in genetic diversity; however, little is known about how the host regulates their activity. Here, we show that the Microprocessor (Drosha-DGCR8), which is required for microRNA biogenesis, also recognizes and binds RNAs derived from human long interspersed element 1 (LINE-1), Alu and SVA retrotransposons. Expression analyses demonstrate that cells lacking a functional Microprocessor accumulate LINE-1 mRNA and encoded proteins. Furthermore, we show that structured regions of the LINE-1 mRNA can be cleaved in vitro by Drosha. Additionally, we used a cell culture–based assay to show that the Microprocessor negatively regulates LINE-1 and Alu retrotransposition in vivo. Altogether, these data reveal a new role for the Microprocessor as a post-transcriptional repressor of mammalian retrotransposons and a defender of human genome integrity. S.R.H. was supported by a Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship and a Marie Curie CIG-Grant (PCIG10-GA-2011-303812). M.P. and E.E. were supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science (BIO2011-23920) and by the Sandra Ibarra Foundation (CSD2009-00080). M.P. is supported by the Novo Nordisk Foundation. J.L.G.-P. is supported by FP7-PEOPLE-2007-4-3-IRG, CICE-FEDER-P09-CTS-4980, PeS-FEDER-PI-002, FIS-FEDER-PI11/01489 and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (IECS-55007420). J.F.C. was supported by Core funding from the Medical Research Council and by the Wellcome Trust (grant 095518/B/11/Z).

As observed for most eukaryotic cells, trypanosomatids contains non-LTR retrotransposons randomly inserted in the nuclear genome. Autonomous retroelements which, code for their own transposition, have been characterized in Trypanosoma brucei (ingi) and Trypanosoma cruzi (L1Tc), whereas non-autonomous retroelements have only been characterized in T. brucei (RIME). Here, we have characterized in the genome of Trypanosoma cruzi four complete copies of a non-autonomous non-LTR retrotransposon, called NARTc. This 0.26 kb NARTc element has the characteristics of non-LTR retrotransposons: the presence a poly(dA) tail and of a short flanking duplicated motif. Analysis of the Genome Survey Sequence databases indicated that the Trypanosoma cruzi haploid genome contains about 140 NARTc copies and about twice as many L1Tc copies. Interestingly, the NARTc and L1Tc retroelements share, with the Trypanosoma brucei ingi and RIME retrotransposons, a common sequence (the first 45 bp with 91% identity), whereas the remaining sequences are very divergent. This suggests that these four trypanosome non-LTR retrotransposons were derived from the same common ancester and the sequence of their 5'-extremity may have a functional role. In addition, the genome of Leishmania major contains the same conserved motif present in the trypanosome retroelements, whicle no transposable elements have been detected so far in Leishmania sp.