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As digital technology use increases in K-12 education, greater numbers of strategies become available to support students in mathematics. One technology that provides students diverse representations of mathematical concepts is virtual manipulatives. Although instruction featuring representations with physical manipulatives possesses a large body of research, the virtual form lacks comparable study, particularly with young children experiencing mathematics difficulty or identified with a mathematics learning disability. These students often demonstrate challenges learning integral skills such as fractions that subsequently affect their academic success in future years. This study examined the use of virtual manipulatives paired with explicit instruction and a system of least prompts for teaching computations with fractions to three elementary students with mathematics difficulty. A functional relation was found using a single-subject multiple probe design between the treatment condition and students' accuracy performance solving problems. These results and their implications for the field at-large are discussed.

Researchers established virtual manipulatives as an evidence-based practice for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). However, much of the existing research for this population targets middle school students with IDD. This study examined a virtual number line paired with teacher modeling and the system of least prompts to support high school students with IDD in acquiring, maintaining, and generalizing addition and subtraction problems. Through a single case research study with three high school students with IDD, the researchers found a functional relation between the intervention package and student accuracy. Students also became more independent but struggled to maintain their skills when prompting was not provided. Further, the students were unable to generalize the skills of addition and subtraction to real-life scenarios targeting time and money. These findings and their implications for the field of IDD are examined.

Manipulatives are an effective mathematical tool to support students with disabilities in the area of mathematics. Yet, there remain inconsistencies in terms of which type -- concrete or virtual -- is more effective for students with disabilities working on algebra related content and which type is preferred by students. The researchers used an alternating treatment single case research design to compare the effectiveness of each type of manipulative in terms of students' accuracy and independence when using the tools. Results indicate both types of manipulatives were effective in terms of accuracy no notable differences when comparing independence. However, when reviewing social validity interview data, all three students preferred virtual algebra tiles.

An established research base exists for using video modeling to teach students with severe disabilities. However, the application of this strategy for teaching academic skills to students with a learning disability is less known, particularly in secondary mathematics. Video modeling provides a resource for supplementary instruction using age-appropriate technology to support student learning. To explore the use of this strategy in algebra, this study assessed video modeling paired with a system of prompting to teach three secondary students with a mathematics learning disability how to graph linear equations. Using a single subject multiple probe design, the researchers found that student performance across multiple measures, including problem-solving accuracy and independence, improved for all three students during treatment phases. These results and their implications for the broader field of mathematics education are discussed.

Students with a mathematics learning disability face many challenges learning algebraic curricula. To support this population, targeted supplementary instruction beyond what is provided by a classroom teacher may benefit their learning outcomes. In this context, video modeling designed in accordance with an established instructional design framework may offer promise in mathematics for this population. While video modeling was studied extensively for students with severe disabilities, its application for students with a mathematics learning disability is limited. Using a single subject alternating treatments design, this study compared video modeling to teacher-led modeling for instructing three secondary students with a mathematics learning disability how to graph linear equations. Across intervention, all three students increased their performance on all dependent variables with both treatments, with teacher-led modeling providing greater accuracy scores for two of the three students. The results of this study and their implications for the field are discussed.

Whole number computations are a critical skill that serves as a foundation upon which higher-order concepts in mathematics are taught to children. To facilitate their instruction, educators often use multiple representations to support a child's cognition. Representations with physical manipulatives are widely studied through a graduated instructional sequence featuring concrete, representational, and abstract stages of learning. In contrast, research on representational sequences featuring virtual manipulatives is less robust. Thus, this study evaluated an instructional strategy with virtual manipulatives, static representational drawings, and abstract algorithms to teach multiplication to three U.S. elementary students with mathematics difficulty. A functional relation was established via a single-subject multiple probe design between the treatment and students' accuracy performance. Baseline-corrected Tau estimates confirmed a medium effect size for all three students, while student performance on measures assessing the number of errors committed and the duration of sessions also returned favorable findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Digital textbooks are increasingly marketed and used, yet little research examines this medium. Within the limited research, even less investigates the role of digital textbooks in mathematics--a challenging content area for many students, but especially for students with visual impairments. Methods: Through a qualitative analysis, this study sought to understand the nature of the use of a digital algebra textbook to support secondary students with visual impairments in algebra. Results: The results suggest three main themes: (a) students' dependence on their traditional textbook medium, (b) educators' reactions to the technology, and (c) the benefits of using the digital textbook despite resistance. The three themes culminate in clear student preferences for traditional textbooks. Discussion: The general resistance to use of the technology warrants caution in terms of schools moving forward with the adoption of digital textbooks, and it suggests that additional examination of the topic is needed. Implications for Practitioners: Practitioners can consider using digital textbooks, but they will need to ensure that they and their students are both properly motivated and adequately trained to use such technology.

As K-12 mathematics standards shift toward emphasizing both conceptual and procedural knowledge in secondary courses such as algebra and geometry, the struggles for students with disabilities become more pronounced. To address these challenges, research has commonly explored the use of technology to aid in the teaching of students with disabilities. One such technology with a growing research base for instruction in the field of special education is the use of video modeling. Despite documented success for students with moderate to severe disabilities, the application of video modeling for instruction with students with a learning disability is largely unknown. This study sought to explore the benefits of video modeling to teach geometry word problems to three secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics. Across a single subject multiple baseline design, all three students demonstrated improved problem-solving performance across all dependent variables measured. The results and their implications for the field of mathematics are discussed.

Although often considered a more advanced area of mathematics, principles of algebra are taught throughout different mathematical concepts, and algebra is often considered gateway mathematical knowledge for more advanced mathematical concepts. For this reason, attention is needed toward making algebraic instruction more accessible to all types of learners, including students with disabilities who often struggle learning mathematics. Using a multiple probe across behaviors replicated across participants single-case design, this study examined whether an intervention sequence consisting of a virtual manipulative and then abstract (i.e., numerical strategies) instruction could support the acquisition of three algebraic behaviors (i.e., one-step division, two-step addition, two-step subtraction, and/or three-step addition) for four middle school students with disabilities. All four students acquired each of the linear algebra behaviors but struggled to maintain their learning once instruction was not provided prior to performance. These findings and their implications are discussed further.

As classrooms begin to adopt a greater number of digital technologies such as computers and tablets, it is important for educators to understand how effective such tools can be in aiding in the delivery of instruction to students who struggle in mathematics, such as those identified with a learning disability in mathematics. One digital-based instructional strategy with a limited research base for students with a learning disability is video modeling. Through a single subject alternating treatments design, this study compared the use of video modeling to face-to-face explicit instruction for teaching geometry word problems to three secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics. Across 10 sessions of intervention, all three students demonstrated improved performance on all dependent variables with both interventions, while the explicit instruction condition produced slightly greater accuracy scores for two of the three students. The results and their implications for the field of mathematics are discussed.

The use of assistive technology in special education has grown over the past four decades. In inclusive settings, assistive technology plays a vital role in providing access to academic content for students with disabilities. As the role of assistive technology in secondary classrooms expands, concerns regarding student autonomy, personal preferences, and the societal implications associated with certain tools increase in significance. This article outlines important considerations for teachers to factor in when making assistive technology selections and identifies three decision-making evaluation tools to aid in the selection process for secondary students with disabilities.

Over the last two decades, the significance of academic achievement for students with disabilities in K-12 education has increased. To meet the needs of this population, educators turned to innovative strategies and technologies for instructional support in the classroom. For students with a learning disability, the need for such solutions is vital to address many of the academic struggles they face in the area of mathematics education. One evidence-based strategy shown to support instruction for students with a learning disability is the use of manipulatives. Although concrete manipulatives were extensively studied for this population, the virtual form of this technology lacks comparable research. Using a multiple probe design across three secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics, this study assessed the benefits of an instructional strategy using a virtual manipulative balance paired with explicit instruction to teach multistep linear equations. Results showed increased percent accuracy and independence scores for all three students across an intervention and maintenance phase. These findings and their broader implications for the field of mathematics education are discussed.

Students with learning disabilities often struggle with the academic demands presented in secondary mathematics curricula. To combat these students' struggles, researchers have studied various pedagogical practices and classroom technologies for teaching standards covered in subjects such as algebra and geometry. However, as the role of computer- and tablet-based technologies in education grows, some areas of study, such as the use of virtual manipulatives, lack exploration. This study sought to assess the benefits of virtual manipulatives to teach secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics how to solve multistep algebraic equations. A multiple baseline design across three participants demonstrated a functional relation between the use of a virtual manipulative balance and teaching students to acquire, maintain, and generalize the skill of solving multistep algebraic equations. Results provide new evidence demonstrating virtual manipulatives as a beneficial age-appropriate technology to teach higher order mathematical concepts to secondary students with a learning disability.

As researchers and practitioners have increasingly become interested in what practices are evidence based and for whom in education, different sets of quality indicators and evidence-based practice standards have emerged in the field of special education. Practices are commonly suggested as evidence based, even without a best evidence synthesis on the existing research, such as the case with the concrete--representational--abstract (CRA) instructional framework to support students with disabilities in mathematics. This study sought to support the classification of the CRA instructional framework as an evidence-based approach for students with learning disabilities by applying quality indicators and standards of evidence-based practice by Cook et al. (2014). Based on the application of the indicators and standards, the CRA instructional framework was determined to be an evidence-based practice for students with learning disabilities who struggle in mathematics relative to computational problems, such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication, largely with regrouping.

Today's classrooms contain students with a variety of needs. Although teachers work to differentiate and meet the needs of diverse students, inclusion of students with physical disabilities can present multiple obstacles in science classrooms. However, with advanced planning and strategic accommodations, the needs of these students can often be met in a manner that emphasizes inclusion and independence. This article describes how one second-grade teacher in a rural school district accommodated two students in her class with physical disabilities during an activity on forces and motion. Both of the students had Individual Education Programs (IEP) in place. After carefully reading through the IEPs, accommodations and modifications the IEP team recommended for each student were identified. To begin the process, the teacher turned to the research based principles of Universal Design for Learning (Basham and Marino 2013) to guide her alterations to the lesson. Universal Design for Learning is an educational framework based on cognitive neuroscience that emphasizes flexible learning environments for students in the classroom, with the goal of accommodating individual learning styles and differences. Additional strategies are discussed for providing classroom supports to students with three types of physical disabilities are also suggested.

A lack of numerical knowledge early on can impede a child's academic development. In past research, playing linear board games improved children's understanding of numerical relations, which the authors theorised could extend to children with autism spectrum disorder. For this pilot study, 10 children played a board game where they moved tokens across coloured tiles displaying the numbers 1-10. During gameplay, students in the experimental group focused on the numbers on the tiles, while the control group focused on the colours. The assessment consisted of a number line estimation task, where students placed numbers ranging from 1 to 9 on a blank number line. Results showed children in the experimental group experienced statistically significant improvement in their understanding of numerical relationships of numbers on the number line estimation task. Findings indicate extended experiences with linear board games can support the numerical development of children with autism spectrum disorder.

The past four decades have generated significant research toward improving the academic outcomes of students with disabilities, especially in the field of mathematics. In this effort, the role of technology in the classroom, both high- and low-tech, has garnered significant attention. For students with disabilities, the use of manipulatives is a form of technology with an established research base. Although concrete manipulatives in instructional practice have been thoroughly studied, the emergence of virtual manipulatives presents teachers with new options for teaching mathematics to elementary and secondary students. This article discusses the use of virtual manipulatives for students with disabilities while highlighting the benefits they pose, such as providing students with flexible options for learning, promoting student autonomy, and offering educators a wider range of options to accommodate diverse groups of students.

A sizable body of literature exists studying various technologies and pedagogical practices for teaching secondary mathematics curriculum to students with a learning disability in mathematics. However, with the growing footprint of computer-based technologies in today's classrooms, some areas of study, such as the use of virtual manipulatives, lack sufficient exploration. Although concrete manipulatives were studied for many decades for students with a learning disability and are considered a best practice, the research base for virtual manipulatives is notably less. With a specific focus on algebraic instruction, this study sought to compare the benefits of both forms of manipulatives to assist secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics to solve single-variable linear equations using a single-subject alternating treatment design. Over the course of 30 sessions of intervention, three students exhibited over 90% average accuracy solving problems using both virtual and concrete manipulatives, while the concrete manipulative earned higher scores for two of the three students.

This article explores a lesson on structure and function in an inclusive first grade classroom. The class is cotaught by a general and special education teacher. The lesson describes how the teachers co-teach through team teaching to plan for possible barriers and use universal design principles to ensure their lesson is accessible to all students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics often struggle with the academic demands presented in advanced mathematics courses, such as algebra and geometry. With greater emphasis placed on problem solving and higher level thinking skills in these subject areas, students with a learning disability in mathematics often fail to keep pace with their general education peers. This study sought to address the lack of existing empirical research targeting viable interventions for learning the concepts of area and perimeter for secondary students with a learning disability in mathematics. Through the use of a multiple baseline design across three participants, virtual manipulatives were found to be an effective tool to acquire, maintain, and generalize the concepts of area and perimeter. Results from this study provide new evidence showing virtual manipulatives to be a viable and accessible technology to teach students with learning disabilities advanced mathematical concepts.

Students with mild intellectual disability generally garner less individual attention in research, as they are often aggregated with students with moderate and severe intellectual disability or students with other high incidence disabilities. This study used the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) to look at the personal characteristics and educational curriculum offered to students with mild intellectual disability during high school, and compared their data to other disability groups to determine if students with mild intellectual disability are unique. Results from the study suggested students with mild intellectual disability differ in cognitive skills and aptitude, and are generally afforded greater classroom accommodations than high incidence disability categories. Statistically significant differences found on direct assessment data and self-determination measures support the notion students with mild intellectual disability are qualitatively and quantitatively unique, and deserve unique consideration from other disability categories.

Written expression is a neglected but critical component of education; yet, the writing process--from prewriting, to writing, and postwriting--is often an area of struggle for students with disabilities. One strategy to assist students with disabilities struggling with the writing process is the use of computer-based technology. This article presents free computer-based technology programs that can be used to support students with disabilities--as well as other struggling writers--in prewriting, writing, and postwriting. While many good for-purchase computer-based writing products exist, this article provides options for teachers and other school personnel trying to balance the needs of students with the realities of school budgets.

This study represents a follow-up to a review of research on functional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disability by Bouck and Flanagan (2010), which focused on the years 1994-2009. This systematic review focused on research involving functional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disability published between 1975 and 1994. The results suggest a lack of historical research; only eight articles were found in four major journals between the years involving research on functional curriculum for this population. The lack of published research found in this review--and in conjunction with the earlier review of research on functional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disability conducted between 1994-2009 (Bouck & Flanagan, 2010)--causes one to question the empirical evidence for a functional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disability.

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are included in general education classes and expected to participate in general education content, such as mathematics. Yet, little research explores academically-based mathematics instruction for this population. This single subject alternating treatment design study explored the effectiveness of concrete (physical objects that can be manipulated) and virtual (3-D objects from the Internet that can be manipulated) manipulatives to teach single-and double-digit subtraction skills. Participants in this study included three elementary-aged students (ages ranging from 6 to 10) diagnosed with ASD. Students were selected from a clinic-based setting, where all participants received medically necessary intensive services provided via one-to-one, trained therapists. Both forms of manipulatives successfully assisted students in accurately and independently solving subtraction problem. However, all three students demonstrated greater accuracy and faster independence with the virtual manipulatives as compared to the concrete manipulatives. Beyond correctly solving the subtraction problems, students were also able to generalize their learning of subtraction through concrete and virtual manipulatives to more real-world applications.

In light of a positive research base regarding technology-based self-operating prompting systems (e.g., iPods), yet a concern about the sustainability of such technologies after a research project is completed, this study sought to explore the effectiveness and efficiency of an audio recorder, a low-cost, more commonly accessible technology to support grocery shopping skills in students with moderate intellectual disability. Using a single subject ABAB design with three high school male students with moderate intellectual disability, the researcher explored student use of an audio recorder to identify and locate grocery list items in a grocery store. The results of the project suggest the students were able to use the audio recorders to correctly identify and locate 10-items from a grocery list. In other words, teachers could implement a relatively inexpensive and easy-to-use technology (i.e., audio recorders) and support students in grocery shopping in a more independent fashion than picture symbol lists. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

Educators often seek innovative strategies to support academic instruction for struggling students. For students with or at risk for a learning disability in mathematics, challenges learning critical skills often result in them falling behind their grade-level peers. One strategy that can provide targeted instruction on key concepts is video modeling. Teacher-made videos serve as a valuable resource for struggling students to access supplementary teaching beyond the classroom. This column highlights six steps for teachers to follow when developing video modeling to support instruction for students with a learning disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proportional reasoning and knowledge of fractions are critical skills for completing algebra successfully, yet many students with mathematics learning disabilities (MLD) enter algebra classes without adequate prior knowledge of these skills. This study used a single-subject/case research, combined multiple-baseline and alternating-treatment design to determine the functional relation between the use of varied technology-based interventions (i.e., a virtual manipulative [VM], a technology-based graphic organizer [TBGO], and a combination of both [VM+TBGO]) and student accuracy in solving proportion word problems. Additional dependent variables included student independence and duration. Three high school students with MLD solved proportion word problems without assistance in the baseline phase and then randomly alternated between the three treatments during intervention. Overall, student accuracy and independence increased, and the time required to solve word problems decreased. All students preferred using technology to solve word problems and the VM+TBGO. Limitations, implications for practice, and suggestions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose:Decades of research exist supporting various types of self-operating prompting systems, including picture, audio and video to help students with disabilities acquire skills, especially to teach life skills. While many facets of life skills are important to target for instruction for secondary students with intellectual disability, one receiving declining attention is grocery shopping. Method:Using a single subject alternating treatment design with two high school students with intellectual disability, the authors analysed the impact of three self-operating prompts systems – picture, audio and video – on students’ successful selection of grocery items, independence in completing the task (i.e., percent of steps not prompted), and task completion time. Results:Results showed video prompting to be most successful prompting system for both students for selecting grocery items. However, independence and task completion time varied significantly for the students across the prompting systems. Conclusions:It is important to match the correct prompting system to individual students’ skills, needs and preference, but also to balance efficiency – both for educators and students.Implications for RehabilitationVideo prompting is an effective instructional strategy, but must be considered in light of time and skill to create the video prompts as well as social stigmatization of use in natural community settings.It is important to match the correct prompting system to each student, but also to balance efficiency – both for educators and students. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]