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There is ample evidence that multimedia learning is challenging, and learners often underutilize appropriate cognitive processes. Previous research has applied prompts to promote the use of helpful cognitive processing. However, prompts still require learners to regulate their learning, which may interfere with learning, especially in situations where cognitive demands are already high. As an alternative, implementation intentions (i.e. if‐then plans) are expected to help regulate behaviour automatically due to their specific wording, thereby offloading demands. Accordingly, this study aimed at investigating whether implementation intentions compared with prompts improve learning performance, especially under high cognitive load. Students (N = 120) learned either in a control condition without instructional support, with prompts, or with implementation intentions. Within each condition, half of the participants studied the multimedia instruction under conditions of either high or low cognitive load, which was experimentally manipulated by instructing them to perform one of two secondary tasks. In line with our hypotheses, the results showed that under low cognitive load, both prompts and implementation intentions led to better learning than the control condition. By contrast, under high cognitive load, only implementation intentions promoted learning. Thus, implementation intentions are an efficient means to promote learning even under challenging circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: When interpreting medical images such as dental panoramic radiographs (Orthopanthomogram, OPT), errors are frequent. Previous research has shown that eye movement modelling examples (EMME) are a supportive training method for medical image interpretation to reduce errors. To date, EMME support for OPTs has not been verified. Objectives: We investigated whether a training with EMME and verbal explanations supports dental students in evaluating OPTs. Methods: Dental students were randomly assigned to an intervention (N = 42) or a control group (N = 41). The intervention group received the EMME between pre‐ and post‐test. In a laboratory study, we measured students' gaze behaviour during evaluating OPTs and the detection rate of anomalies. Results and conclusions: The training led to fewer, shorter, and later fixations on anomalies and no difference in visual coverage of the OPT. The detection rate of anomalies did not improve. We replicated the latter finding in an online study (N = 31). Students may not have been able to apply the information from the EMME to detect anomalies. The image reading processes changed to more efficient rather than deeper visual search. Major takeaways: This study evaluated a training method with EMME for anomaly detection of OPTs. EMMEs did not improve the anomaly detection of dental students and changed their visual search process toward a more efficient rather than a deeper search. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Dental students and dentists commit many errors when interpreting radiographs.Validated interventions to support radiograph interpretations are lacking.Eye movement modelling examples (EMME) consist of videos showing an expert's gaze behaviour while performing a visual task.EMME improve processing of visual information in other domains (e.g., multimedia learning, chest x‐rays). What this paper adds: We investigated whether EMME improved detection of anomalies and gaze behaviour for dental students.Three EMME videos of dental experts explaining their behaviour and observations were presented to students.Studying the EMME videos did not improve the detection of anomalies.The gaze behaviour changed to a more efficient visual search. Implications for practice and/or policy: EMME do not seem to be effective as a short‐term intervention to improve anomaly detection for dental students.Further research is needed to develop effective training methods that could be applied in university teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: It is well established that successful learning with multimedia is challenging, especially for younger learners. Aims: It was investigated whether students would profit from instructional support regarding the use of multimedia learning strategies. Sample: Participants were high school students in 8th, 9th, and 10th grade (N = 168). Methods: Participants were assigned to a no‐support control group or one of four experimental groups. In the experimental groups, students received either only a multimedia strategy training before learning (training group) or the training was enriched by prompts (prompts before or during learning) or if‐then plans (implementation intentions). In the training, multimedia learning strategies were introduced (e.g., linking information from text and picture). The prompts and implementation intentions were aimed at enhancing the application of the multimedia strategies conveyed through the training. Students learned about the process of mitosis by studying multimedia instructions and were tested regarding the acquired knowledge. It was expected that solely training students to use adequate multimedia learning strategies would not promote learning compared with the control group, rather, that additional support like prompts or implementation intentions would be necessary to enhance learning. Results: Although in the experimental groups, multimedia learning strategies were used more frequently especially in the beginning of the instructional unit, there were no effects on learning outcome. Conclusions: Promoting multimedia strategy use did not improve learning. The quality of the different instructional support measures and their suitability for the target groups are discussed as possible explanations for these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The technique of drawing to learn has received increasing attention in recent years. In this article, we will present distinct purposes for using drawing that are based on active, constructive, and interactive forms of engagement. In doing so, we hope to show that drawing to learn should be widely used and that there is good evidence to support its use in many situations. To make the most of these distinct purposes, teachers should note that what learners draw matters and that this needs to be assessed in relation to task demands. Drawing to learn will also require learners to be supported to engage meaningfully in ways that are matched to these pedagogical purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interpretation of medical images is an error-prone process that may yield severe consequences for patients. In dental medicine panoramic radiography (OPT) is a frequently used diagnostic procedure. OPTs typically contain multiple, diverse anomalies within one image making the diagnostic process very demanding, rendering students' development of visual expertise a complex task. Radiograph interpretation is typically taught through massed practice; however, it is not known how effective this approach is nor how it changes students' visual inspection of radiographs. Therefore, this study investigated how massed practice–an instructional method that entails massed learning of one type of material–affects processing of OPTs and the development of diagnostic performance. From 2017 to 2018, 47 dental students in their first clinical semester diagnosed 10 OPTs before and after their regular massed practice training, which is embedded in their curriculum. The OPTs contained between 3 to 26 to-be-identified anomalies. During massed practice they diagnosed 100 dental radiographs without receiving corrective feedback. The authors recorded students' eye movements and assessed the number of correctly identified and falsely marked low- and high prevalence anomalies before and after massed practice. Massed practice had a positive effect on detecting anomalies especially with low prevalence (p <.001). After massed practice students covered a larger proportion of the OPTs (p <.001), which was positively related to the detection of low-prevalence anomalies (p =.04). Students also focused longer, more frequently, and earlier on low-prevalence anomalies after massed practice (ps <.001). While massed practice improved visual expertise in dental students with limited prior knowledge, there is still substantial room for improvement. The results suggest integrating massed practice with more deliberate practice, where, for example, corrective feedback is provided, and support is adapted to students' needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A central factor in research guided by the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is the mental effort people invest in performing a task. Mental effort is commonly assessed by asking people to report their effort throughout performing, learning, or problem-solving tasks. Although this measurement is considered reliable and valid in CLT research, metacognitive research provides robust evidence that self-appraisals of performance are often biased. In this review, we consider the possibility that mental effort appraisals may also be biased. In particular, we review signs for covariations and mismatches between subjective and objective measures of effort. Our review suggests that subjective and most objective effort measures appear reliable and valid when evaluated in isolation, because they discriminate among tasks of varying complexity. However, not much is known about their mutual correspondence—that is, whether subjective measures covariate with objective measures. Moreover, there is evidence that people utilize heuristic cues when appraising their effort, similar to utilization of heuristic cues underlying metacognitive appraisals of performance. These cues are identified by exposing biases—mismatch in effects of cue variations on appraisals and performance. The review concludes with a research agenda in which we suggest applying the well-established methodologies for studying biases in self-appraisals of performance in metacognitive research to investigating effort appraisals. One promising method could be to determine the covariation of effort appraisals and objective effort measures as an indicator of the resolution of effort appraisals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learners face several self-regulatory challenges during multimedia learning: choosing adequate cognitive strategies (cognitive self-regulation), relying on their own learning abilities (motivational self-regulation), and investing sufficient effort (behavioral self-regulation). Implementation intentions (plans that help transform intentions into action) can support self-regulation. We expected that cognitive, motivational, or behavioral implementation intentions improved learning, compared to a control group. In a first experiment, we found weak evidence that cognitive and behavioral implementation intentions improved learning, whereas motivational implementation intentions reduced learning. However, replication failed in two follow-up experiments. Our findings contradict previous research and suggest that implementation intentions are not suitable to support multimedia learning. Future research should focus on possible boundary conditions that could account for the unexpected and unstable findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This contribution is a commentary to a special issue titled "Example‐based learning: New theoretical perspectives and advances to a contemporary instructional approach" published in Applied Cognitive Psychology (2020). In the commentary, the presented research is discussed with respect to three extensions compared with previous research, namely, theoretical frameworks, learning scenarios and domains. It concludes with some suggestions for methodological advancements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the study was to develop an adaptive, gaze-contingent learning environment that would support learners in their information-processing behavior when learning from illustrated texts. To this end, three experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1 (N = 32) three groups of learners were identified based on differences in their eye movements obtained while they were learning with a non-adaptive multimedia learning environment. The group of learners who displayed longer fixations times and higher fixations counts on text and pictures as well as more text-picture transitions had better learning outcomes than a group with a less intense information-processing behavior. These findings were used to develop a gaze-contingent adaptive system. It analyzes learners' eye movements during learning in real time and - in case of poor information processing (i.e., behavior similar to that of the unsuccessful learner group in Experiment 1) - alters the presentation of the materials in a way that is expected to trigger a more adequate processing (e.g., by highlighting relations between text and pictures). In Experiment 2 (N = 79) and Experiment 3 (N = 62) the adaptive multimedia learning system was compared to a non-adaptive, static presentation of the same materials. Experiment 2 showed no differences between both learning systems in terms of learning outcome. In Experiment 3, where the thresholds for adaptive responses were slightly modified, the gaze-based adaptive system hindered learners with weaker cognitive prerequisites, but tended to support learners with stronger cognitive prerequisites. Possible reasons are discussed and future research directions suggested. • A gaze-contingent adaptive multimedia system was developed. • The system analyses gaze behavior in realtime and provides adaptive support. • Empirically determined thresholds were used to design the adaptation algorithm. • The adaptive system was not effective/harmful for weaker learners. • The adaptive system improved transfer for stronger learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia integration signals highlight correspondences between text and pictures with the aim of supporting learning from multimedia. A recent meta-analysis revealed that only learners with low domain-specific prior knowledge benefit from multimedia integration signals. To more thoroughly investigate the influence of prior knowledge on the multimedia signaling effect in a more ecologically valid context, we conducted a quasi-experimental field study with 8th graders. They learned with a digital multimedia textbook in 1 of the 2 versions: (a) a basic version with signals that supported only the selection and organization of information from either text or pictures or (b) an extended version with additional multimedia integration signals to support the integration of information from text and pictures (e.g., color coding, deictic references). Results of a contrast analysis revealed that low-prior-knowledge learners learned better with the extended version compared with the basic version, whereas adding multimedia integration signals was detrimental for learning outcomes of high-prior-knowledge learners. This expertise reversal effect could only partially be explained by cognitive load measures, in that high-prior-knowledge learners had higher extraneous cognitive load in the condition with multimedia integration signals. The results suggest a need for a more individualized multimedia design that considers students' prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: When learning with text and pictures, learners often fail to adequately process the materials, which can be explained as a failure to self‐regulate one's learning by choosing adequate cognitive learning processes. Eye movement modelling examples (EMME) showing how to process multimedia instruction have improved elementary school children's learning from text and pictures in previous studies. Aims: We tested whether the positive effects of EMME for improving self‐regulated multimedia learning extend to university students and teaching of more comprehensive processing strategies. Moreover, we investigated whether EMME's effectiveness depends upon a learner's cognitive prerequisites. Sample: Participants were 50 university students (38 female; M = 26.88 years) with different study majors. Methods: Different prior knowledge aspects were assessed as cognitive prerequisites. Before learning about mitosis from a multimedia instruction, students either received no intervention or saw EMME demonstrating various multimedia learning processes. Learning outcomes and eye movements served as dependent variables. Results: Learners in the EMME group showed more intense processing of pictures and more frequent transitions between text and pictures. Weaker learners showed poorer recall performance after having studied EMME, whereas EMME had no effect on stronger students. In the forced‐choice verification task, stronger students benefitted from EMME, whereas no effect occurred for weaker students. The picture‐processing time was suited to explain the positive effects of EMME for stronger students. Conclusions: Our results indicate that EMME illustrating a comprehensive set of cognitive processes support multimedia learning for stronger university students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientific reasoning skills can be acquired through technology-enhanced inquiry tasks or video modeling examples showing how to conduct virtual experiments. However, inquiry tasks can be cognitively demanding for novice learners, whereas video modeling examples can induce overconfidence. The present study investigated the effectiveness of both approaches in isolation and combination. We compared the effects of four groups (example-example, example-task, task-example and task-task) on learning outcomes, perceived difficulty and mental effort, judgments of learning, and monitoring accuracy among 107 seventh graders. In line with our hypotheses, watching a video modeling example first led to lower mental effort, better learning outcomes, and higher judgments of learning than solving an inquiry task first. Contrary to our hypotheses, all groups underestimated their performance. Results for mental effort and learning outcomes corroborate research on worked examples, whereas results for judgments of learning and monitoring accuracy indicate an underconfidence-with-practice effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to explore two accounts for why sketching during learning from text is helpful: (1) sketching acts like other constructive strategies such as self-explanation because it helps learners to identify relevant information and generate inferences; or (2) that in addition to these general effects, sketching has more specific benefits due to the pictorial representation that is constructed. Seventy-three seventh-graders (32 girls, M = 12.82 years) were first taught how to either create sketches or self-explain while studying science texts. During a subsequent learning phase, all students were asked to read an expository text about the greenhouse effect. Finally, they were asked to write down everything they remembered and then answer transfer questions. Strategy quality during learning was assessed as the number of key concepts that had either been sketched or mentioned in the self-explanations. The results showed that at an overall performance level there were only marginal group differences. However, a more in-depth analysis revealed that whereas no group differences emerged for students implementing either strategy poorly, the sketching group clearly outperformed the self-explanation group for students who applied the strategies with higher quality. Furthermore, higher sketching quality was strongly related to better learning outcomes. Thus, the study's results are more in line with the second account: Sketching can have a beneficial effect on learning above and beyond generating written explanations; at least, if well deployed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Visual displays are very frequently used in learning materials. Although visual displays have great potential to foster learning, they also pose substantial demands on learners so that the actual learning outcomes are often disappointing. In this article, we pursue three main goals. First, we identify the main difficulties that learners have when learning from visual displays. Knowledge about these difficulties is an important basis for selecting appropriate support procedures. Second, we present an overview of empirically tested support procedures and the evidence about their effectiveness. We distinguish between material-oriented interventions and learner-oriented interventions. Material-oriented interventions are, for example, reducing the visual displays' complexity, cueing/signaling, or physically integrating text and pictures. Learner-oriented interventions refer to the training of learning prerequisites, pre-training, and prompting. Third, we outline fruitful lines of further research with a specific focus on (a) the tentative explanations we provide on the basis of the best available evidence, (b) promising but not yet fully approved support procedures, and (c) important issues that have largely not been researched up to now. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the general effectiveness of multimedia instruction, students do not always benefit from it. This study examined whether students’ learning from multimedia can be improved by teaching them relevant learning strategies. On the basis of current theories and research on multimedia learning, the authors developed a strategy training for 9th-grade students. To evaluate it, 31 students received the aforementioned training and 33 students received placebo control training. After that, students completed a multimedia learning session on meiosis. Results showed that although the experimental training improved students’ strategy knowledge, it had no effect on learning outcomes. Accordingly, students acquired strategy knowledge but did not apply it later. Implications for the design of multimedia strategy interventions and future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Two experiments investigated how signals foster learning from text and diagrams by examining the relationship between visual attention and learning outcomes. In Experiment 1 ( N = 55) students learned about the circulatory heart system from a multimedia lesson either with or without signals highlighting text–diagram correspondences. Results showed that students learning with signals attended to signaled (but not to non-signaled) information more frequently and earlier during learning; these changes in visual attention could explain better performance in answering text–diagram-integration questions. Experiment 2 ( N = 78) replicated these findings with respect to early attention on signaled diagram elements and learning outcomes; in addition, a third condition was investigated, where signals highlighted diagram elements that did not match the text. Results showed that mismatched signals guided attention only initially, whereas later on students attended more to information that corresponded to the text. Mismatched signals had no effect on learning outcomes. Taken together, the results suggest that signals aid learning by highlighting specific text–diagram correspondences and not by amplifying diagram processing more generally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article reviews 42 studies investigating the role of sequencing of text and pictures for learning outcomes. Whereas several of the reviewed studies revealed better learning outcomes from presenting the picture before the text rather than after it, other studies demonstrated the opposite effect. Against the backdrop of theories on memory representations, these results are explained by a recency effect: that is, recall of information should be superior for the medium (text or picture) presented second, and thus, in closer temporal proximity to the assessment. As a consequence, the type of knowledge assessed (text-based vs. picture-based) and its congruence with the more recent medium should determine whether better learning results are found when presenting the picture or text first. Against the backdrop of theories on mental model construction, results were explained by a facilitation effect for the medium (text or picture) presented second. As a consequence, the relative complexity of information conveyed by the picture and by the text should determine which medium is better to be processed first, with less complex information being processed first leading to better comprehension. To conclude, the review suggests that it is not so much the sequence of text and pictures per se that affects learning outcomes than these boundary conditions (i.e., type of assessed knowledge, relative complexity of text, and picture). Accordingly, the present review seeks to stimulate further research along the boundary conditions to better understand the processes involved when learning with text and pictures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Study of relations between technology integration and students' effort in tablet and non-tablet classes (N = 1,363). • Higher effort in tablet classes (math) after first term; differences alleviate in subsequent terms. • Frequency of using tablets (math) is unrelated to the development of effort. • Quality of technology integration (math) is related to the development of effort. • Experience of high cognitive activation when learning with tablets (math) is associated with positive changes in effort. Effort students put forth when learning (EFF) is paramount to high achievement in an academic context. However, EFF has been shown to decrease over the course of a student's school career. Using technology (i.e., computer-based technologies including digital [smart] devices like tablet computers) in classroom teaching might be a powerful way to cushion this effect as technology has the potential to promote effort-related learning processes. However, it is yet unclear how technology should be integrated into classroom teaching to promote sustainable effects because long-term studies in natural classroom scenarios are scarce. In this study, we analyzed both short-term (across 4 months) and long-term (across 16 months) changes in students' EFF in mathematics and German as a language in a context in which teachers had begun to integrate technology (i.e., tablet computers) into their teaching. We used data from N = 1,363 seventh- to eighth-grade students in 28 schools. The schools were randomly assigned to either a tablet condition (teachers and students were given the opportunity to use tablet computers for one-to-one computing for teaching and learning) or a non-tablet condition. Changes in students' EFF, assessed as cognitive engagement and academic effort , were analyzed with baseline latent change and multiple, multivariate linear regression models. In mathematics, short-term changes in EFF were more positive in the tablet than in the non-tablet condition and the higher the quality of technology integration in classrooms the more positive were long-term changes. In German, the more often tablet computers were used the more positive were short-term changes. The results underscore the importance of high-quality integration of technology in complex classroom environments but also demonstrate the need to examine domain-specific integration of technologies more intensively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Learners with dynamic visualizations outperformed learners with static ones. [•] This effect held true for recognition, but not for factual knowledge. [•] There was no interaction between dynamism and realism of the visualizations. [•] Schematic visualizations fostered recognition for low-visuospatial-ability learners. [•] Realistic visualizations fostered recognition for high-visuospatial-ability learners. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Multimedia effects and modality effects were limited to immediate recall. [•] A redundant presentation of text proved harmful for delayed performance. [•] Reading comprehension did not moderate effects of multimedia design. [•] High scientific-literacy learners showed a multimedia effect for delayed recall. [•] Better cognitive prerequisites were associated with less forgetting over time. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Three experiments were conducted to study on a more fine-grained level how processing a picture facilitates learning from text. In Experiment 1 (N = 85), results from a drawing task revealed that the global spatial structure of a pulley system picture was extracted even from its brief inspection (for 600 ms, 2 s). In Experiment 2 (N = 105), students who initially inspected the pulley system picture (for 600 ms, 2 s, or self-paced) had better comprehension of the system's functions and made more eye movements in line with the system's global spatial structure when listening to text than students who listened to text only. In Experiment 3 (N = 39), students who first saw the picture (for 2 s) processed written text of the pulley system's spatial structure more efficiently than students who read text only. Results suggest that global spatial information extracted from the picture was used as a mental scaffold to facilitate mental model construction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study investigated how enriching visualizations with arrows indicating the motion of objects may help in conveying dynamic information: Multiple static-simultaneous visualizations with motion-indicating arrows were compared with either multiple visualizations without arrows or a single visualization with arrows. Seventy-one students were randomly assigned to the three conditions. Learning outcomes were measured by dynamic and static pictorial test items requiring learners to classify objects according to their locomotion pattern. Even though learners'' performance in the static test indicated some use of static cues, they showed better performance once dynamic information was available suggesting that it is applied to accomplish the task. Unexpectedly, the combined condition performed worse than both other conditions in the dynamic test. Accordingly, multiple visualizations without arrows and single visualizations with motion indicators appear to facilitate mental animation differently either by supporting comparisons among multiple pictures or by making dynamic information explicit. However, combining both instructional methods may result in interference thereby hindering learning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The reported study investigated the influence of longer text presentation on the modality and the redundancy effect. In particular, the auditory-recency-effect explanation, which predicts that both effects should disappear when longer texts are presented, was tested against the text-processing explanation, which predicts that both effects should even reverse if text-processing strategies can be applied. In Experiment 1, a 2×2 between-subject design with animation presentation (yes vs. no) and text modality (written vs. spoken) was used (N =81). In line with the auditory-recency-effect explanation text modality did not influence learning outcomes. Moreover, animations facilitated transfer performance due to reduced cognitive effort. In Experiment 2, a 2×3 between-subject design with pacing (system-paced vs. learner-paced) and text modality (written vs. spoken vs. written and spoken) was used (N =122). Again, text modality did not influence learning outcomes regardless of whether the learning environment was learner- or system-paced, supporting the auditory-recency-effect explanation. The analysis of log-files, however, indicated that learners within the learner-paced condition with written text replayed the single text segments more often; moreover, replaying segments was positively correlated with learning outcomes. Thus, processing written text more intensively was associated with better learning outcomes, which supports the text-processing explanation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We investigated how a picture fosters learning from text, both with self-paced presentation and with short presentation before text. In an experiment, participants (N = 114) learned about the structure and functioning of a pulley system in one of six conditions: text only, picture presentation for 150 milliseconds, 600 milliseconds, or 2 seconds, or self-paced before text, or self-paced concurrent presentation of text and picture. Presenting the picture for self-paced study time, both before and concurrently with text, fostered recall and comprehension and sped up text processing compared with presenting text only. Moreover, even inspecting the picture for only 600 milliseconds or 2 seconds improved comprehension and yielded faster reading of subsequent text about the spatial structure of the system compared with text only. These findings suggest that pictures, even if attended for a short time only, may yield a spatial mental scaffold that allows for the integration with verbal information, thereby fostering comprehension. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated which information is extracted from a brief glance at an instructional diagram to assess its possible contribution for learning with text and diagrams. An experimental paradigm from scene perception research was used to study diagrams. University students (N = 20) saw pictures showing a scene or instructional diagrams for four different presentation times (50 msec. vs 250 msec. vs 1,000 msec. vs 3,000 msec.). Following presentation of a picture or diagram, respectively, participants were asked to verify a statement about its gist, details, and the functioning (for diagrams only). Repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to analyze verification accuracy for statements about gist, details, and the functioning as well as the eye movements (i.e., fixation durations and saccade amplitudes) during picture inspection. In both scenes and instructional diagrams, gist but not details were accurately identified from a first glance at the picture (i.e., at 50 msec. and 250 msec.). In contrast, verification accuracy for gist and details increased at a slower rate in instructional diagrams than in scene pictures over presentation times. Moreover, the characteristic function of increasing fixation durations with increasing inspection time was found in scenes, but not in instructional diagrams. Taken together, results suggest that both types of illustrations are processed differently at longer inspection times; however, patterns of early information extraction are similar, namely that the gist but far less information about details is extracted. Results imply people are able to extract an instructional diagram's global spatial structure from a first glance, which may be helpful to learning from text. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The multimedia effect (ME) is a well-researched effect in the field of learning and instruction. In this article, two views that explain the ME are compared. The outcome-oriented view focuses on the beneficial effect of text and pictures on mental representations, whereas the process-oriented view focuses on the beneficial effect of text and pictures for information processing. To contrast these views, the ME sizes for different task types were compared (i.e., conceptual, causal, procedural tasks). Whereas the outcome-oriented view predicts no differences in ME size, the process-oriented view predicts that the ME is largest in causal tasks, smaller in procedural tasks, and smallest in conceptual tasks. Sixty-five students learnt with text only or with text and pictures. Task type and information source (i.e., whether the text, picture, or text and picture provided the answer to a post-test question) were varied within subjects. The results showed that, in line with the process-oriented view, the ME was smaller for conceptual tasks than for procedural tasks. Contrary to the expectations, the ME was larger in procedural tasks than in causal tasks. Moreover, the pattern of results varied with information source. Research and practical implications are described, so that pictures can be deployed optimally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Two studies are reported that tested the assumption that learning is improved by presenting text and pictures compared to text only when the text conveys non-spatial rather than spatial information. In Experiment 1, 59 students learned with text containing either visual or spatial contents, both accompanied by the same pictures. The results confirmed the expected interference between the processing of spatial text contents and pictures: Learners who received text containing spatial information showed worse text and picture recall than learners who received text containing visual information. In Experiment 2, 85 students were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, which resulted from a 2×2 between-participants design, with picture presentation (with vs without) and text contents (visual vs spatial) as between-participants factors. Again the results confirmed the expected interference between processing of spatial text information and pictures, because beneficial effects of adding pictures to text were observed only when the texts conveyed visual information. Importantly, when no pictures were present no differences were observed between learners with either visual or spatial texts contents, indicating that the observed effects are not caused by absolute differences between the two texts such as their difficulty. The implications of these results are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effectiveness of three different instructional materials for learning how to identify fish at the species level in a blended classroom and out-of-classroom scenario. A sample of 195 first-year students of biology or geoecology at the University of Tuebingen participated in a course on identification of European freshwater fish species at a public aquarium. Prior to studying the species in the aquarium's fish tanks, students prepared themselves in a classroom nearby with one of three different learning materials: (1) preserved specimens and paper-based dichotomous identification keys; (2) digital videos; or (3) digital videos with preserved specimens and paper-based dichotomous identification keys. Students' acquisition of knowledge and their motivation were measured twice, once after preparing in the classroom and once after visiting the aquarium. Results showed that students who had prepared themselves with digital videos identified significantly more species correctly but were less motivated than those students who had learnt only with preserved specimens and dichotomous identification keys. When both instructional methods were combined students performed well in the post-tests and were motivated to learn, suggesting that the combination of both instructional approaches encourages motivation without any outcome losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conducting experiments fosters conceptual understanding in science education. In various studies, combinations of real (hands-on) and virtual (computer-simulated) experiments have been shown to be especially helpful for gaining conceptual understanding. The present systematic review, based on 42 experimental studies, focuses on the following: (1) What is the relative effectiveness of combining real and virtual experiments compared with a single type of experimentation? (2) Which sequence of real and virtual experiments is most effective? The results indicate that (1) in most cases combinations of real and virtual experiments promote conceptual understanding better than a single type of experimentation, and (2) there is no evidence for the superiority of a particular sequence. We conclude that for combining real and virtual experiments, apart from the individual affordances and the learning objectives of the different experiment types, especially their specific function for the learning task must be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Two studies investigated the effectiveness of dynamic and static visualizations for a perceptual learning task (locomotion pattern classification). In Study 1, seventy-five students viewed either dynamic, static-sequential, or static-simultaneous visualizations. For tasks of intermediate difficulty, dynamic visualizations led to better classification performance than static-sequential visualizations, but not than static-simultaneous visualizations. To test whether the temporal aspects of presenting static-simultaneous visualizations (i.e., their permanent visibility) or their spatial aspects (i.e., their arrangement in rows) accounted for this effect, Study 2 investigated three additional static-simultaneous conditions. Seventy-five students viewed static-simultaneous visualizations presented either in columns, matrices, or circles. For tasks of intermediate difficulty dynamic visualizations outperformed pictures presented in columns, matrices, and circles, but not the rows format. Accordingly, for learning about locomotion patterns, dynamic visualizations are better suited than most, but not all static visualization formats. From a practical point of view, effort should be invested into the design of static-simultaneous visualizations to further optimize instructional materials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The study examined whether the modality effect is caused by either high visuo-spatial load or a lack of temporal contiguity when processing written text and pictures. Students (N = 147) viewed pictures on the development of tornados, which were accompanied by either spoken or written explanations presented simultaneously with, before, or after the pictures. For verbal recall no modality effect was observed, whereas for transfer the influence of modality varied as a function of phonological working memory capacity. For pictorial recall the results showed a modality effect that was limited to simultaneous presentation, apparently in line with the temporal contiguity explanation. However, spoken simultaneous presentations were not superior to spoken sequential presentations, which contradicts the temporal contiguity explanation for the modality effect. Rather, it seems as if learners with simultaneous presentation of written text and picture concentrated more on the text and ignored the pictures, resulting in worse pictorial recall. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The rapid development of computer graphics technology has made possible an easy integration of dynamic visualizations into computer-based learning environments. This study examines the relative effectiveness of dynamic visualizations, compared either to sequentially or simultaneously presented static visualizations. Moreover, the degree of realism in the visualizations was manipulated experimentally. One hundred-and-twenty university students were randomly assigned to one of six conditions (3 × 2; between-subjects; presentation format × realism). Learners’ visuo-spatial abilities were considered as a continuous moderator for the presentation format. Learning outcomes were measured by a pictorial locomotion pattern classification test. Dynamic conditions outperformed static-sequential ones, but not static-simultaneous conditions, in classification performance. Realism had no main effect and did not interact with the presentation format as expected. Learners’ visuo-spatial abilities had a positive effect on learning outcomes, but did not moderate the effects of the presentation format. Implications of the results for the design of instructional materials are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A lot of research has focused on the beneficial effects of using multimedia, that is, text and pictures, for learning. Theories of multimedia learning are based on Baddeley's working memory model (Baddeley ). Despite this theoretical foundation, there is only little research that aims at empirically testing whether and more importantly how working memory contributes to learning from text and pictures; however, a more thorough understanding of how working memory limitations affect learning may help instructional designers to optimize multimedia instruction. Therefore, the goal of this review is to stimulate such empirical research by (1) providing an overview of the methodologies that can be applied to gain insights in working memory involvement during multimedia learning, (2) reviewing studies that have used these methodologies in multimedia research already, and (3) discussing methodological and theoretical challenges of such an approach as well as the usefulness of working memory to explain learning with multimedia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of dynamic and static visualizations in understanding physical principles of fish locomotion were investigated. Seventy-five students were assigned to one of three conditions: a text-only, a text with dynamic visualizations, or a text with static visualizations condition. During learning, subjects were asked to think aloud. Learning outcomes were measured by tests assessing verbal factual knowledge, pictorial recall as well as transfer. Learners in the two visualization conditions outperformed those in the text-only condition for transfer and pictorial recall tasks, but not for verbal factual knowledge tasks. Analyses of the think-aloud protocols revealed that learners had generated more inferences in the visualization conditions as opposed to the text-only condition. These results were mirrored by students’ self-reported processing demands. No differences were observable between the dynamic and the static condition concerning any of the learning outcome measures. However, think-aloud protocols revealed an illusion of understanding when learning with dynamic as opposed to static visualizations. Furthermore, learners with static visualizations tended to play the visualizations more often. The results stress the importance of not only using outcome-oriented, but also process-oriented approaches to gain deeper insight into learning strategies when dealing with various instructional materials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study we investigated the influence of text modality on learning with static and dynamic visualizations in a dynamic domain, namely the physical principles underlying fish locomotion. A 2×2-design with type of visualization (static vs. dynamic) and text modality (spoken vs. written) as independent variables was used. Concerning learning outcomes, it was hypothesized that (1) learners presented with dynamic visualizations would outperform learners presented with static visualizations, (2) learners presented with spoken text would outperform learners presented with written text, and (3) an interaction between type of visualization and modality would occur: the superiority of dynamic over static visualizations was expected to be more pronounced for spoken compared to written text. Subjective cognitive load measures were assessed and expected to mirror the aforementioned pattern of learning outcomes in accordance with Cognitive Load Theory (i.e., higher extraneous cognitive load (ECL) related to lower learning outcomes). For transfer tasks, the first two hypotheses could be confirmed. However, there was no interaction. Moreover, ECL was rated higher by subjects when learning with static compared to dynamic visualizations, but there were no differences for ECL with respect to the text modality. The results are discussed within the framework of Cognitive Load Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the reported experiment we investigated how spatial information conveyed in an expository text influenced multimedia learning. It was based on a 2×2-design with the degree of spatial information given in the text (high vs. low spatial text) and the presentation format (written text-only vs. written text+animation) as between-subjects factors. As dependent variables learning outcomes as well as self-reported cognitive load were assessed. The results revealed that there was a multimedia effect with regard to learning outcomes only for low spatial text, but not for high spatial text. Moreover, the cognitive load measures showed an overall multimedia effect irrespective of the degree of spatial information conveyed by the text (i.e., higher cognitive load ratings in the text-only conditions). These results can be explained as a special instance of the redundancy effect as well as a consequence of processing interference within visuo-spatial working memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Tasks with a complex, dynamic visual component require not only the acquisition of conceptual/procedural but also of perceptual/attentional skills. This study examined expertise differences in perceiving and interpreting complex, dynamic visual stimuli on a performance and on a process level, including perceptual and conceptual strategies. Performance, eye movement, and verbal report data were obtained from seven experts and 14 novices. Results show that experts compared to novices attend more to relevant aspects of the stimulus, use more heterogeneous task approaches, and use knowledge-based shortcuts. Implications for instructional design for the acquisition of perceptual skills are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This special issue comprises a set of six papers, in which studies are presented that use eye tracking to analyse multimedia learning processes in detail. Most of the papers focus on the effects on visual attention of animations with different design features such as spoken vs. written text, different kinds of cues, or different presentation speeds. Two contributions concern effects of learner characteristics (prior knowledge) on visual attention when learning with video and complex graphics. In addition, in some papers eye tracking is not only used as a process measure in itself, but also as input for verbal reports (i.e., cued retrospective reporting). In the two commentaries, the contributions are discussed from a multimedia learning perspective and an eye tracking perspective, by prominent researchers in those fields. Together, the contributions to this issue give an overview of the various possibilities eye tracking opens up for research on multimedia learning and instruction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An introduction to the series of studies discussed within the issue is presented, which included an investigation into how graphic layouts affect visual attention distribution in newspaper reading, and another study on learning with multiple representations in the area of mathematics.

Abstract: Two experiments are reported that investigated the relative effectiveness of a realistic dynamic visualization as opposed to a schematic visualization for learning about cell replication (mitosis). In Experiment 1, 37 university students watched either realistic or schematic visualizations. Students'' subjective task demands ratings as well as their performance in a multiple-choice test and a pictorial test clearly demonstrated the superiority of the schematic dynamic visualization. In Experiment 2, 83 students were given the two visualizations in four different orders of presentation. Students showed the same performance irrespective of whether they watched the schematic visualization twice, first saw the schematic and then the realistic visualization or vice versa. Only students, who watched the realistic visualization twice, had far lower learning outcomes. Contrary to our expectations, for both experiments, students'' prior knowledge did not moderate the results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Against the background of an adaptation of Cognitive Load Theory to learner-controlled settings we investigated the impact of learner characteristics on information utilization strategies, cognitive load, and learning outcomes in a hypermedia environment. Based on the data of 79 students, five clusters of students were identified according to their learner characteristics by means of a cluster analysis. Further analyses showed that learners with more favorable characteristics (i.e., higher prior knowledge, more complex epistemological beliefs, more positive attitudes towards mathematics, better cognitive and metacognitive strategy use) tended to show a more adaptive example utilization behavior, reported less cognitive load, and solved more problems correctly than learners with less favorable characteristics. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, two experiments on the use of hypermedia environments for learning about probability theory are reported. In Experiment 1a it was tested whether multimedia design principles (multimedia principle, modality principle, redundancy principle) are valid in hypermedia environments, despite the fact that hypermedia offers more learner control than multimedia. The results showed only little evidence for this validity, although the hypermedia environment entailed only a rather low level of learner control. In Experiment 1b it was investigated how learner control affects performance and how its possible impact is moderated by learners’ prior knowledge. A high level of learner control positively affected the effectiveness of instruction only with regard to intuitive knowledge, but was at the same time accompanied by large increases in learning time, thereby rendering the instruction inefficient. Unexpectedly, effects of learner control were not moderated by students’ prior knowledge. The results imply that the idea to use multimedia design principles for hypermedia learning is too simple and that the benefits and drawbacks of learner control depend heavily on learning objectives and time constraints. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The phenomenon that the physical integration of verbal and pictorial information sources, compared to their physical separation, enhances learning is known as the split-attention effect. This paper investigates how the split-attention effect can be best explained against the background of cognitive load theory. In an experimental study, students learned about physiological processes with either an integrated or a split-source format. Secondary task performance was used to measure overall cognitive load, whereas subjective ratings were used to measure intrinsic, extraneous and germane load individually. Learners with split-source format achieved lower learning outcomes, but did not show worse secondary task performance than learners with integrated format. These results contradict the assumption that only an increase in extraneous load for learners with a split-source format mediates the split-attention effect. Mediation analyses of the subjective load ratings revealed that both, extraneous and germane load contributed to the split-attention effect. These results support the assumption that germane load also plays a crucial role in mediating the split-attention effect. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper, two methodological perspectives are used to elaborate on the value of cognitive load theory (CLT) as a scientific theory. According to the more traditional critical rationalism of Karl Popper, CLT cannot be considered a scientific theory because some of its fundamental assumptions cannot be tested empirically and are thus not falsifiable. According to the structuralist view of theories introduced by Joseph D. Sneed, a theory may be considered scientific even if it comprises nontestable fundamental assumptions. Rather, the scientific value of a theory results from the holistic empirical content of the overall theory net built around fundamental assumptions and from the successful applications of this theory net to explain and predict empirical findings. This latter view is helpful to explicate some implicit methodological assumptions of CLT research and to avoid the potential circularity of CLT’s fundamental assumptions. Additionally, the structuralist view of theories can be directly used to derive a research agenda for the future development of CLT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global comparisons of learning from hypertext/hypermedia and traditional presentation formats like text have yet failed to show major advantages concerning the effectiveness of hypermedia learning. Thus, it is proposed in the current paper to evaluate hypermedia environments more specifically with regard to their potential to implement and support well-defined learning approaches. According to this view, an effective hypermedia design needs to be based on thorough cognitive task analyses with regard to structures, processes, and resources that are required to benefit from a specific learning approach. This claim is illustrated by two experiments in which we explored the instructional potential of hypermedia environments for improving schema acquisition from worked-out examples. A cognitive task analysis was used to identify specific types of information comparisons that are crucial for successful schema induction and that might be effectively supported by suitably designed hypermedia environments. The experiments investigated two methods for enhancing comparison processes in hypermedia-assisted learning from worked-out examples, namely, elaboration prompts and an interactive comparison tool. Both methods improved performance for near-transfer problems. Ways of extending this task-analytical approach to facilitating far transfer are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contrary to system-controlled multimedia learning environments, hypermedia systems are characterized by a high level of interactivity. This interactivity is referred to as learner control in the respective literature. For several reasons this learner control is seen as a major advantage of hypermedia for learning and instruction. For instance, learner control might increase students’ interest and motivation, facilitate adaptive instruction, or provide affordances for active and constructive information processing. In this paper we analyze the instructional potentials of learner-controlled hypermedia environments as well as possible reasons for the ambiguous results of studies that have aimed at determining the effectiveness of hypermedia learning. According to our analysis, the potential effectiveness of self-controlled learning with hypermedia might be difficult to demonstrate due to (1) usability problems (i.e., disorientation, distraction, cognitive overload), (2) moderating learner characteristics (i.e., prior knowledge, self-regulatory skills, cognitive styles, and attitudes towards learning), (3) a lack of conceptual foundations, and (4) methodological shortcomings of many hypermedia studies. The findings reviewed in this paper and the corresponding claim that hypermedia may be effective only if used in a sensible way are used to derive a couple of guidelines for further research on hypermedia learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In two experiments we explored how learning from traditional molar worked-out examples—focusing on problem categories and their associated overall solution procedures—as well as from more efficient modular worked-out examples—where intrinsic cognitive load is reduced by breaking down complex solutions into smaller meaningful solution elements—can be further enhanced. Instructional explanations or self-explanation prompts were administered to increase germane cognitive load. However, both interventions were not effective for learning and prompting for self-explanations even impaired learning with modular examples. In the latter case, prompting might have forced learners to process redundant information, which they had already sufficiently understood. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports on an experiment investigating the effects of different kinds of computer-based visualizations on the acquisition of problem-solving skills in the domain of probability theory. Learners received either purely text-based worked examples, text plus an instruction to mentally imagine the examples’ contents, or the possibility of retrieving either static pictures or concrete animations that depicted the problem statement and the problem states achieved by applying a specific solution-step. It could be shown that frequent use of both static pictures and imagining the examples’ contents improved performance on isomorphic problems. Frequent use of animations, in contrast, led to substantial increases in learning time and a decrease in performance. Thus, the use of concrete animations to visualize solution procedures was more harmful than helpful for conveying problem-solving skills. Reasons for these outcomes are discussed in the light of cognitive load theory. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this article, we propose some augmentations of cognitive load theory (CLT) inspired by evidence from hypertext-based instruction. In particular, we focus on the role of goal configurations and processing strategies as moderators between instructional design and cognitive load. First, we describe pivotal assumptions of CLT and conceptual shortcomings related to these assumptions. Second, we review evidence from our own hypertext-based research that gives reasons for integrating configurations of teacher goals, learner goals, as well as processing strategies into CLT. These augmentations of CLT are necessary to account for the rather weak relation between instructional design and pattern of cognitive load that shows up in the context of self-controlled learning. CLT, augmented with the notion of learner control, can now better serve as a theoretical foundation for the design of hypertext-based instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]