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Background: Plasma extracellular vesicles (pEV) can harbor a diverse array of factors including active proteases and the amyloid-precursor-protein (APP) cleavage product Aβ, involved in plaque formation in Alzheimer`s diseases (AD). A potential role of such vesicles in AD pathology is unexplored., Methods: In a case-control study of randomly selected patients with AD and other neurological diseases (n = 14), and healthy controls (n = 7), we systematically analyzed the content of pEV, using different assay systems. In addition, we determined their entry path into brain tissue, employing animal (mice) injection experiments with ex vivo generated EV that were similar to AD-pEV, followed by multi antigen analysis (MAA) of brain tissue (n = 4 per condition). The results were compared with an IHC staining of human brain tissue in a small cohort of AD patients (n = 3) and controls with no neurodegenerative diseases (n = 3)., Findings: We show that pEV levels are considerably upregulated in AD patients. Besides numerous inflammatory effectors, AD-pEV contained α-, β- and γ-secretases, able to cleave APP in in target cells. In vitro generated EV with similar characteristics as AD-pEV accumulated in the choroid plexus (CP) of injected animals and reached primarily hippocampal neurons. Corroborating findings were made in human brain samples. An inhibitor of hyaluronic-acid-synthetase (HAS) blocked uploading of proteases and Hyaluronan onto EV in vitro and abolished CP targeting in animal injection experiments., Interpretation: We conclude that protease-containing pEV could be part of a communication axis between the periphery and the brain that could be become detrimental depending on pEV concentration and duration of target cell impact., Funding: See the Acknowledgements section., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests B. Plosnita is employed by TissueGnostics GmbH, Vienna. Dr Baur considers to submit a patent. Dr. Eberhardt and Prof. Vera-Gonzalez reports grants from German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), during the conduct of the study. The other authors have declared no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

During inflammation, murine and human monocytes can develop into dendritic cells (DC), but this process is not entirely understood. Here, we demonstrate that extracellular vesicles (EV) secreted by mature human DC (maDC) differentiate peripheral monocytes into immature DC, expressing a unique marker pattern, including 6-sulfo LacNAc (slan), Zbtb46, CD64, and CD14. While EV from both maDC and immature DC differentiated monocytes similar to GM-CSF/IL-4 stimulation, only maDC-EV produced precursors, which upon maturation stimulus developed into T-cell-activating and IL-12p70-secreting maDC. Mechanistically, maDC-EV induced cell signaling through GM-CSF, which was abundant in EV as were IL-4 and other cytokines and chemokines. When injected into the mouse skin, murine maDC-EV attracted immune cells including monocytes that developed activation markers typical for inflammatory cells. Skin-injected EV also reached lymph nodes, causing a similar immune cell infiltration. We conclude that DC-derived EV likely serve to perpetuate an immune reaction and may contribute to chronic inflammation., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

The evolution of cancer is characterized by the appearance of specific mutations, but these mutations are translated into proteins that must cooperate to induce malignant transformation. Using a systemic approach with the multiepitope ligand cartography (MELC) technology, we analyzed protein expression profiles (PEPs) in nevi and BRAF V600E -positive superficial spreading melanomas (SSMs) from patient tissues to identify key transformation events. The PEPs in nevi and SSMs differed predominantly in the abundance of specific antigens, but the PEPs of nevi- and melanoma-associated keratinocytes gradually changed during the transformation process. A stepwise change in PEP with similar properties occurred in keratinocytes cocultured with melanoma cells. Analysis of the individual steps indicated that activation of the metalloproteinase ADAM10 by signal peptide peptidase-like 3 (SPPL3) triggered by mutant BRAF V600E was a critical transformation event. SPPL3-mediated ADAM10 activation involved the translocation of SPPL3 and ADAM10 into Rab4- or Rab27-positive endosomal compartments. This endosomal translocation, and hence ADAM10 activation, was inhibited by the presence of the tumor suppressor PTEN. Our findings suggest that systematic tissue antigen analysis could complement whole-genome approaches to provide more insight into cancer development., (Copyright © 2017, American Association for the Advancement of Science.)

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) efficiently suppresses HIV replication but immune activation and low CD4 T cell counts often persist. The underlying mechanism of this ART-resistant pathogenesis is not clear. We observed that levels of plasma extracellular vesicles (pEV) are strongly elevated in HIV infection and do not decline during ART. Surprisingly, these vesicles contained the viral accessory proteins Nef and Vpu, which are assumed to be not expressed under efficient ART, as well as pro-inflammatory effectors, including activated ADAM17. HIV pEV were characterized by the presence of activated αvβ3 and absence of CD81 and Tsg101. Correlating with immune activation, peripheral monocytes ingested large amounts of pEV, giving rise to an increased population of CD1c(+) CD14(+) cells that secreted inflammatory cytokines. Importantly, the pro-inflammatory content, particularly ADAM17 activity, correlated with low T cell counts. Preliminary evidence suggested that HIV pEV derived from peripheral mononuclear cells and from an unknown myeloid cell population. In summary we propose an important role of pro-inflammatory pEV in chronic HIV infection due to ongoing viral Nef activity., (Copyright © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Human adenovirus infection is life threatening after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Immunotherapy with donor-derived adenovirus-specific T cells is promising; however, 20% of all donors lack adenovirus-specific T cells. To overcome this, we transfected α/β T cells with mRNA encoding a T-cell receptor (TCR) specific for the HLA-A*0101-restricted peptide LTDLGQNLLY from the adenovirus hexon protein. Furthermore, since allo-reactive endogenous TCR of donor T lymphocytes would induce graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) in a mismatched patient, we transferred the TCR into γ/δ T cells, which are not allo-reactive. TCR-transfected γ/δ T cells secreted low quantities of cytokines after antigen-specific stimulation, which were increased dramatically after co-transfection of CD8α-encoding mRNA. In direct comparison with TCR-transfected α/β T cells, TCR-CD8α-co-transfected γ/δ T cells produced more tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and lysed peptide-loaded target cells as efficiently. Most importantly, TCR-transfected α/β T cells and TCR-CD8α-co-transfected γ/δ T cells efficiently lysed adenovirus-infected target cells. We show here, for the first time, that not only α/β T cells but also γ/δ T cells can be equipped with an adenovirus specificity by TCR-RNA electroporation. Thus, our strategy offers a new means for the immunotherapy of adenovirus infection after allogeneic HSCT.

Denileukin diftitox (DD), a diphtheria toxin fragment IL-2 fusion protein, is thought to target and kill CD25(+) cells. It is approved for the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and is used experimentally for the depletion of regulatory T cells (Treg) in cancer trials. Curiously enough, clinical effects of DD did not strictly correlate with CD25 expression, and Treg depletion was not confirmed unambiguously. Here, we report that patients with melanoma receiving DD immediately before a dendritic cell (DC) vaccine failed to develop a tumor-antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T-cell immune response even after repeated vaccinations. Analyzing the underlying mechanism, so far we found unknown effects of DD. First, DD modulated DCs toward tolerance by downregulating costimulatory receptors such as CD83 and CD25 while upregulating tolerance-associated proteins/pathways including Stat-3, β-catenin, and class II transactivator-dependent antigen presentation. Second, DD blocked Stat3 phosphorylation in maturing DCs. Third, only activated, but not resting, Treg internalized DD and were killed. Conversely, resting Treg showed increased survival because of DD-mediated antiapoptotic IL-2 signaling. We conclude that DD exerts functions beyond CD25(+) cell killing that may affect their clinical use and could be tested for novel indications.

Oncolytic adenoviruses are emerging agents for treatment of cancer by tumor-restricted virus infection and cell lysis. Clinical trials have shown that oncolytic adenoviruses are well tolerated in patients but also that their antitumor activity needs improvement. A promising strategy toward this end is to trigger systemic and prolonged antitumor immunity by adenoviral oncolysis. Antitumor immune activation depends in large part on antigen presentation and T cell activation by dendritic cells (DCs). Thus, it is likely that the interaction of lysed tumor cells with DCs is a key determinant of such "oncolytic vaccination." Our study reveals that human DCs effectively phagocytose melanoma cells at late stages of oncolytic adenovirus infection, when the cells die showing preferentially features of necrotic cell death. Maturation, migration toward CCL19 and T cell stimulatory capacity of DCs, crucial steps for immune induction, were, however, not induced by phagocytosis of oncolysate, but could be triggered by a cytokine maturation cocktail. Therefore, oncolytic adenoviruses and adenoviral oncolysate did not block DC maturation, which is in contrast to reports for other oncolytic viruses. These results represent a rationale for inserting immunostimulatory genes into oncolytic adenovirus genomes to assure critical DC maturation. Indeed, we report here that adenoviral transduction of melanoma cells with CD40L during oncolysis triggers the maturation of human DCs with T cell stimulatory capacity similar to DCs matured by cytokines. We conclude that triggering and shaping DC-induced antitumor immunity by oncolytic adenoviruses "armed" with immunostimulatory genes holds promise for improving the therapeutic outcome of viral oncolysis in patients., (Copyright © 2011 UICC.)

The type of adaptive immune response following host-fungi interaction is largely determined at the level of the antigen-presenting cells, and in particular by dendritic cells (DCs). The extent to which transcriptional regulatory events determine the decision making process in DCs is still an open question. By applying the highly structured DC-ATLAS pathways to analyze DC responses, we classified the various stimuli by revealing the modular nature of the different transcriptional programs governing the recognition of either pathogenic or commensal fungi. Through comparison of the network parts affected by DC stimulation with fungal cells and purified single agonists, we could determine the contribution of each receptor during the recognition process. We observed that initial recognition of a fungus creates a temporal window during which the simultaneous recruitment of cell surface receptors can intensify, complement and sustain the DC activation process. The breakdown of the response to whole live cells, through the purified components, showed how the response to invading fungi uses a set of specific modules. We find that at the start of fungal recognition, DCs rapidly initiate the activation process. Ligand recognition is further enhanced by over-expression of the receptor genes, with a significant correspondence between gene expression and protein levels and function. Then a marked decrease in the receptor levels follows, suggesting that at this moment the DC commits to a specific fate. Overall our pathway based studies show that the temporal window of the fungal recognition process depends on the availability of ligands and is different for pathogens and commensals. Modular analysis of receptor and signalling-adaptor expression changes, in the early phase of pathogen recognition, is a valuable tool for rapid and efficient dissection of the pathogen derived components that determine the phenotype of the DC and thereby the type of immune response initiated.

Background: The advent of Systems Biology has been accompanied by the blooming of pathway databases. Currently pathways are defined generically with respect to the organ or cell type where a reaction takes place. The cell type specificity of the reactions is the foundation of immunological research, and capturing this specificity is of paramount importance when using pathway-based analyses to decipher complex immunological datasets. Here, we present DC-ATLAS, a novel and versatile resource for the interpretation of high-throughput data generated perturbing the signaling network of dendritic cells (DCs)., Results: Pathways are annotated using a novel data model, the Biological Connection Markup Language (BCML), a SBGN-compliant data format developed to store the large amount of information collected. The application of DC-ATLAS to pathway-based analysis of the transcriptional program of DCs stimulated with agonists of the toll-like receptor family allows an integrated description of the flow of information from the cellular sensors to the functional outcome, capturing the temporal series of activation events by grouping sets of reactions that occur at different time points in well-defined functional modules., Conclusions: The initiative significantly improves our understanding of DC biology and regulatory networks. Developing a systems biology approach for immune system holds the promise of translating knowledge on the immune system into more successful immunotherapy strategies.

Adenoviral oncolysis is a promising new modality for treatment of cancer based on selective viral replication in tumor cells. However, tumor cell killing by adenoviral oncolysis needs to be improved to achieve therapeutic benefit in the clinic. Towards this end, the activation of anti-tumor immunity by adenoviral oncolysis might constitute a potent mechanism for systemic killing of uninfected tumor cells, thereby effectively complementing direct tumor cell killing by the virus. Knowledge of anti-tumor immune induction by adenoviral oncolysis, however, is lacking mostly due to species-specificity of adenovirus replication, which has hampered studies of human oncolytic adenoviruses in animals. We suggest the analysis of interactions of oncolytic adenoviruses with human immune cells as rational basis for the implementation of adenoviral oncolysis-induced anti-tumor immune activation. The goal of our study was to investigate how oncolytic adenoviruses affect human dendritic cells (DCs), key regulators of innate and adoptive immunity that are widely investigated as tumor vaccines. We report that melanoma-directed oncolytic adenoviruses, like replication-deficient adenoviruses but unlike adenoviruses with unrestricted replication potential, are not toxic to monocyte-derived immature DCs and do not block DC maturation by external stimuli. Of note, this is in contrast to reports for other viruses/viral vectors and represents a prerequisite for anti-tumor immune activation by adenoviral oncolysis. Furthermore, we show that these oncolytic adenoviruses alone do not or only partially induce DC maturation. Thus additional signals are required for optimal immune activation. These could be delivered, for example, by inserting immunoregulatory transgenes into the oncolytic adenovirus genome., (Copyright 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)