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Passive rewilding is a potential tool for expanding woodland cover and restoring biodiversity by abandoning land management and allowing natural vegetation succession to occur. Land can be abandoned to passive rewilding deliberately or due to socio-economic change. Despite abandonment being a major driver of land use change, few have studied the long-term outcomes for vegetation and biodiversity in Western Europe. Studies are also biased towards sites that are close to seed sources and favourable to woodland colonisation. In this case-study, we reconstruct a time series of passive rewilding over 33 years on 25 ha of former farmland that had been subject to soil tipping, far from woodland seed sources. Natural colonisation by shrubs and trees was surveyed at three points during the time series, using field mapping and lidar. Breeding birds were surveyed at three time points, and compared with surveys from nearby farmland. Results showed that natural colonisation of woody vegetation was slow, with open grassland dominating the old fields for two decades, and small wetlands developing spontaneously. After 33 years, thorny shrub thickets covered 53% of the site and former hedgerows became subsumed or degraded, but trees remained scarce. However, the resulting habitat mosaic of shrubland, grassland and wetland supported a locally distinctive bird community. Farmland bird species declined as passive rewilding progressed, but this was countered by relatively more wetland birds and an increase in woodland birds, particularly songbirds, compared to nearby farmland. Alongside biodiversity benefits, shrubland establishment by passive rewilding could potentially provide ecosystem services via abundant blossom resources for pollinators, and recreation and berry-gathering opportunities for people. Although closed-canopy woodland remained a distant prospect even after 33 years, the habitat mosaic arising from passive rewilding could be considered a valuable outcome, which could co

Passive rewilding is a potential tool for expanding woodland cover and restoring biodiversity by abandoning land management and allowing natural vegetation succession to occur. Land can be abandoned to passive rewilding deliberately or due to socio-economic change. Despite abandonment being a major driver of land use change, few have studied the long-term outcomes for vegetation and biodiversity in Western Europe. Studies are also biased towards sites that are close to seed sources and favourable to woodland colonisation. In this case-study, we reconstruct a time series of passive rewilding over 33 years on 25 ha of former farmland that had been subject to soil tipping, far from woodland seed sources. Natural colonisation by shrubs and trees was surveyed at three points during the time series, using field mapping and lidar. Breeding birds were surveyed at three time points, and compared with surveys from nearby farmland. Results showed that natural colonisation of woody vegetation was slow, with open grassland dominating the old fields for two decades, and small wetlands developing spontaneously. After 33 years, thorny shrub thickets covered 53% of the site and former hedgerows became subsumed or degraded, but trees remained scarce. However, the resulting habitat mosaic of shrubland, grassland and wetland supported a locally distinctive bird community. Farmland bird species declined as passive rewilding progressed, but this was countered by relatively more wetland birds and an increase in woodland birds, particularly songbirds, compared to nearby farmland. Alongside biodiversity benefits, shrubland establishment by passive rewilding could potentially provide ecosystem services via abundant blossom resources for pollinators, and recreation and berry-gathering opportunities for people. Although closed-canopy woodland remained a distant prospect even after 33 years, the habitat mosaic arising from passive rewilding could be considered a valuable outcome, which could co

Peatlands are important reserves of terrestrial carbon and biodiversity, and given that many peatlands across the UK and Europe exist in a degraded state, their conservation is a major area of concern and a focus of considerable research. Aerial surveys are valuable tools for habitat mapping and conservation and provide useful insights into their condition.Weinvestigate how SfM photogrammetry-derived topography and habitat classes may be used to construct an estimate of carbon loss from erosion features in a remote blanket bog habitat. An autonomous, unmanned, aerial, fixed-wing remote sensing platform (Quest UAV 300™) collected imagery over Moor House, in the Upper Teesdale National Nature Reserve, a site with a high degree of peatland erosion. The images were used to generate point clouds into orthomosaics and digital surface models using SfM photogrammetry techniques, georeferenced and subsequently used to classify vegetation and peatland features. A classification of peatbog feature types was developed using a random forest classification model trained on field survey data and applied to UAV-captured products including the orthomosaic, digital surface model and derived surfaces such as topographic index, slope and aspect maps. Using the area classified as eroded peat and the derived digital surface model, we estimated a loss of 438 tonnes of carbon from a single gully. The UAV system was relatively straightforward to deploy in such a remote and unimproved area. SfM photogrammetry, imagery and random forest modelling obtained classification accuracies of between 42% and 100%, and was able to discern between bare peat, saturated bog and sphagnum habitats. This paper shows what can be achieved with low-cost UAVs equipped with consumer grade camera equipment and relatively straightforward ground control, and demonstrates their potential for the carbon and peatland conservation research community.

1. Modelling species distribution and abundance is important for many conservation applications, but it is typically performed using relatively coarse-scale environmental variables such as the area of broad land-cover types. Fine-scale environmental data capturing the most biologically-relevant variables have the potential to improve these models. For example, field studies have demonstrated the importance of linear features, such as hedgerows, for multiple taxa, but the absence of large-scale datasets of their extent prevents their inclusion in large-scale modelling studies. 2. We assessed whether a novel spatial dataset mapping linear and woody linear features across the UK improves the performance of abundance models of 18 bird and 24 butterfly species across 3723 and 1547 UK monitoring sites respectively. 3. Although improvements in explanatory power were small, the inclusion of linear features data significantly improved model predictive performance for many species. For some species, the importance of linear features depended on landscape context, with greater importance in agricultural areas. 4. Synthesis and applications. This study demonstrates that a national-scale model of the extent and distribution of linear features improves predictions of farmland biodiversity. The ability to model spatial variability in the role of linear features such as hedgerows will be important in targeting agri-environment schemes to maximally deliver biodiversity benefits. Although this study focuses on farmland, data on the extent of different linear features are likely to improve species distribution and abundance models in a wide range of systems, and also can potentially be used to assess habitat connectivity.

The aim of this project is to meet the urgent need for further understanding of (1) the effectiveness of agri-environment scheme delivery on ecological and chemical water quality and (2) the monitoring programme required to enable its quantification.

The Welsh Government has commissioned a comprehensive new ecosystem monitoring and evaluation programme to monitor the effects of Glastir, its new land management scheme, and to monitor progress towards a range of international biodiversity and environmental targets. A random sample of 1 km squares stratified by landcover types will be used both to monitor change at a national level in the wider countryside and to provide a backdrop against which intervention measures are assessed using a second sample of 1 km squares located in areas eligible for enhanced payments for advanced interventions. Modelling in the first year has forecast change based on current understanding, whilst a rolling national monitoring programme based on an ecosystem approach will provide an evidence-base for on-going, adaptive development of the scheme by Welsh Government. To our knowledge, this will constitute the largest and most in-depth ecosystem monitoring and evaluation programme of any member state of the European Union.

Mainstreaming ecosystem services in EU decision making processes requires a solid conceptual and methodological framework for mapping and assessing ecosystem services that serve the multiple objectives addressed by policies. The PRESS-2 study (PEER Research on EcoSystem Services – Phase 2) provides such an analytical framework which enables the operationalization of the present scientific knowledge base of environmental data and models for application by the EU and Member States for mapping and assessment of ecosystem services. This study is structured along three strands of work: policy and scenario analysis, mapping and valuation. Linking maps of ecosystem services supply to monetary valuation allows an analysis of the expected impact of policy measures on benefits derived from ecosystem services.

Mainstreaming ecosystem services in EU decision making processes requires a solid conceptual and methodological framework for mapping and assessing ecosystem services that serve the multiple objectives addressed by policies. The PRESS-2 study (PEER Research on EcoSystem Services – Phase 2) provides such an analytical framework which enables the operationalization of the present scientific knowledge base of environmental data and models for application by the EU and Member States for mapping and assessment of ecosystem services. This study is structured along three strands of work: policy and scenario analysis, mapping and valuation. Linking maps of ecosystem services supply to monetary valuation allows an analysis of the expected impact of policy measures on benefits derived from ecosystem services.

The pathway that delivers mobilized phosphorus (P) from source to surface water is conceptually complex. Firstly P mobilization itself, either through mechanical disturbance of the soil, or through chemical dissolution or weathering is difficult to measure in situ, secondly the annual flow weighted mean concentration of P is a difficult metric to gather. Summarizing these pathway processes as the ratio of the delivered P to the mobilized fraction of P assists in the quantification and assessment of the P transfer continuum. The proportion of this mobilized P that is subsequently delivered to the watercourse is also difficult to quantify. A range of P models already exist that aim to predict P mobilization and delivery. Reasonable estimates can be made for the outputs of P from a plot or small catchment over a series of events. Current models mainly rely on empirical data or expert judgment to derive appropriate coefficients of P transfer and delivery. This paper describes research designed to evaluate the range of delivery coefficients from headwater catchments that might be anticipated for different land use regions across the UK. These coefficients were evaluated within a fuzzy decision tree framework. The delivery coefficients used in this study covered a broad range of possible values from all available data describing P fluxes from headwater catchments in the UK. The results of this work indicate that delivery coefficients are a useful way of summarising the mobilisation behaviour of a headwater catchment. Mean delivery coefficients above unity were present in 4 of 18 catchments, indicating higher than average delivery, probably due to intensive agricultural management practices. This first use of a fuzzy or uncertain approach to model P delivery in the UK has generated potentially promising results, and a methodology has been developed for producing delivery coefficients using sparse data, which may be applicable to other headwater catchments.

Dissolved aluminium concentrations ([Al]) in the <0.45μm filtered fraction are described for 54 UK river sites covering rural, acidic/acid sensitive, agricultural and urban typologies, and wide pH range (4 to 11). High [Al] occurred under acidic conditions and for acid runoff neutralised by bicarbonate rich groundwater. Thermodynamic analysis indicates Al hydroxide/hydroxy-silicate oversaturation at circumneutral pH across the rivers, but undersaturation at lower/higher pH. The oversaturation reflects in part the presence of Al bearing colloids as indicated by (1) [Al] being correlated with components associated with both lithogenic (Fe, Ti and lanthanides) colloids and organic carbon, (2) baseflow studies using cross-flow ultrafiltration and (3) comparison of our data with Acid Waters Monitoring Network (AWMN) information on labile and non-labile Al. Tree harvesting and emission reductions of SOx in acidic and acid sensitive catchments in mid-Wales led to acidification reversal, lower [Al] and changing [H+] – [Al] relationships. The [Al] decline was confined to acidic conditions while [Al] increased during the later part of the monitoring period with a peak around 2002 for moorland and forested systems. Colloidal production across the flow range was indicated late in the record by comparison of our data with information collected by the AWMN for a site in mid-Wales. This production seems interlinked with organic carbon and with dissolved CO2 changes. In order for further understanding of Al hydrogeochemistry in river systems there is a need to integrate research that moves from equilibrium to kinetic and colloidal consideration including the critical issues of organic and inorganic controls within the context of bioavailability and aquatic stress. The colloidal Al may well be of low environmental concern to fish and other factors such as habitat may well be critical.

This paper provides data from two years of monitoring of the chemical quality of rivers and streams in North West England from the clean headwaters to polluted rivers just above the tidal reach and covers 26 sites including the Ribble, Wyre and the tributary rivers of the Calder and Douglas. Across the basins that include areas of rural, urban and industrial typologies, data is presented for three of the priority substances in the Water Framework Directive i.e., nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Average concentrations are low and well below the Environmental Quality Standards values for all three of these substances. Cadmium and Pb appear in approximately equal proportions in the dissolved (<0.45 µm) and in the acid available particulate fractions (>0.45 µm) whilst Ni occurs predominantly in the dissolved form (92%). Regional inputs of these metals arise mostly from diffuse sources as the storm-flow concentrations are generally greater than at base-flow condition. Greater concentrations of Ni are transported at the headwaters and smaller tributary sites under storm flow condition than for the main stream of the Ribble. For Ni, amounts increase as the river proceeds from its headwaters down towards the Ribble and Wyre estuaries, whilst Cd and Pb show consistent values throughout the catchment. There is annual cycling of dissolved concentrations of Cd, Pb and Ni for the clean headwater streams that gives maxima during the latter half of the year when the river flow is greater. For the impacted sites the pattern is less distinct or absent. Our estimates suggest that the Ribble estuary receives 550 t y−1 of dissolved Ni, 16 t y−1 of dissolved Cd and 240 t y−1 of dissolved Pb.

Esthwaite Water, Cumbria Bathymetric map digitised from Ramsbottom A.E. (1976) Depth Charts of the Cumbrian Lakes. Ambleside: Freshwater Biological Association. (FBA Scientific Publication No.33)

Indicators are increasingly relied upon to monitor performance against predefined targets and to aid the development of policy. Rather than provide absolute measures, indicators are intended to summarise and distil complex information into simple, robust, relative indices which can be used to assess relative change or trends over time. An indicator of habitat connectivity is one of eighteen biodiversity indicators proposed for the UK (UK Biodiversity Partnership 2007). This indicator is intended to allow the assessment of change in habitat connectivity and to monitor progress towards 2010 biodiversity targets. Fragmentation is the process of changing landscape structure by physically breaking-up large areas of habitat into smaller pieces. Connectivity, or functional connectivity, is the degree to which landscape structures facilitate or impede movement of organisms among habitat patches (Taylor et al. 1993; With et al., 1997). This paper examines the suitability of various connectivity measures, including species-based metrics, graph theory, buffer radius and least-cost approaches (e.g. Calabrese & Fagan 2004), as the basis for the UK connectivity indicator, by assessing their ability to detect change in UK model landscapes at different scales. The model landscapes are created by applying conceptual, plausible landscape change options (e.g. add/enlarge patches, remove patches, change matrix) to actual landscapes using an expert knowledgebase. These selected landscape change options alter landscape structure and have the potential to affect habitat connectivity (e.g. spatial location of new/removed patches, reduced/increased isolation, changes to landscape permeability).

The uncertainties associated with stream nutrient transport estimates are frequently overlooked and the sampling strategy is rarely if ever investigated. Indeed, the impact of sampling strategy and estimation method on the bias and precision of stream phosphorus (P) transport calculations is little understood despite the use of such values in the calibration and testing of models of phosphorus transport. The objectives of this research were to investigate the variability and uncertainty in the estimates of total phosphorus transfers at an intensively monitored agricultural catchment. The Oona Water which is located in the Irish border region, is part of a long term monitoring program focusing on water quality. The Oona Water is a rural river catchment with grassland agriculture and scattered dwelling houses and has been monitored for total phosphorus (TP) at 10 min resolution for several years (Jordan et al, 2007). Concurrent sensitive measurements of discharge are also collected. The water quality and discharge data were provided at 1 hour resolution (averaged) and this meant that a robust estimate of the annual flow weighted concentration could be obtained by simple interpolation between points. A two-strata approach (Kronvang and Bruhn, 1996) was used to estimate flow weighted concentrations using randomly sampled storm events from the 400 identified within the time series and also base flow concentrations. Using a random stratified sampling approach for the selection of events, a series ranging from 10 through to the full 400 were used, each time generating a flow weighted mean using a load-discharge relationship identified through log-log regression and monte-carlo simulation. These values were then compared to the observed total phosphorus concentration for the catchment. Analysis of these results show the impact of sampling strategy, the inherent bias in any estimate of phosphorus concentrations and the uncertainty associated with such estimates. The estimate

Diagnostic models such as the P Indicators Tool have been used to predict the risk of P losses from different areas of agricultural land to watercourses. These models embody the source-mobilization delivery-impact framework as a simple logical summary of process understanding. however, the assessment of P delivery has been neglected in the past. An alternative, decision-tree approach to predict the delivery of P to water bodies is presented here. The approach was developed as part of the DEFRA PEDAL project (http://www.lec.lancs.ac.uk/cswm/projects) and makes use of national coverage data held within a GIS at the 1 km(2) scale, in combination with a "field toolkit" of measurements and qualitative observations. For all catchments, monitoring of total P loads in receiving waters has occurred over recent years enabling evaluation of the modelling and field toolkit approach.

66 Straw incorporation into soil seems to limit N leaching as well as improving soil structure and contributing to C storage in soil. A better understanding of its effect on the dynamics of soil N can be reached using a model simulating C and N contents in soil biomass. A simple model has been developed modifying the sub-routine of crop residue decomposition implemented in the SUNDIAL package. The updated model calculates daily N and C in microbial biomass, using an increased number of pools with different decomposition rates in order to simulate the differentiate decomposition carried out by soil fungal and bacterial populations. The model has been calibrated using results of a laboratory experiment, and then validated using published data from a field experiment on straw incorporation. In both cases soil moisture content and temperature has not been taken into account to carry out a more robust evaluation. The new model, which uses composite pools instead of single pools to describe the residual and the microbial biomass pools, can more accurately predict C and N contents in microbial soil biomass shortly after straw incorporation; however it is still inaccurate in simulating longer scenarios (365 days). The work presented here shows how even a semi-empirical model such as SUNDIAL when properly modified can simulate the effect of straw incorporation, however further work is required to determine a possible microbial and or chemical justification for the empirical splitting of the decomposition pool.

Diagnostic models such as the P Indicators Tool have been used to predict the risk of P losses from different areas of agricultural land to watercourses. These models embody the source "mobilization delivery" impact framework as a simple logical summary of process understanding. however, the assessment of P delivery has been neglected in the past. An alternative, decision-tree approach to predict the delivery of P to water bodies is presented here. The approach was developed as part of the DEFRA PEDAL project (http://www.lec.lancs.ac.uk/cswm/projects) and makes use of national coverage data held within a GIS at the 1 km2 scale, in combination with a "field toolkit" of measurements and qualitative observations. For all catchments, monitoring of total P loads in receiving waters has occurred over recent years enabling evaluation of the modelling and field toolkit approach.

A modelled dataset derived from a range of national datasets, describing the distribution of woody linear feature boundaries in Great Britain. The dataset presents linear features which have a high likelihood of being a woody linear feature. The dataset was created by a predictive model developed at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster in 2016.

Water quality data from 26 Ribble and Wyre river basin sites in north west England. Samples were analysed for major solutes, pH, Gran alkalinity, trace metals, mercury and chlorophyll.

A modelled dataset derived from a range of national datasets, describing the distribution of woody linear feature boundaries in Great Britain. The dataset presents linear features which have a high likelihood of being a woody linear feature. The dataset was created by a predictive model developed at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster in 2016.

Water quality data from 26 Ribble and Wyre river basin sites in north west England. Samples were analysed for major solutes, pH, Gran alkalinity, trace metals, mercury and chlorophyll.