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Recently, advantages concerning targeting specificity of PCR constructed oligonucleotide FISH probes in contrast to established FISH probes, e.g. BAC clones, have been demonstrated. These techniques, however, are still using labelling protocols with DNA denaturing steps applying harsh heat treatment with or without further denaturing chemical agents. COMBO-FISH (COMBinatorial Oligonucleotide FISH) allows the design of specific oligonucleotide probe combinations in silico. Thus, being independent from primer libraries or PCR laboratory conditions, the probe sequences extracted by computer sequence data base search can also be synthesized as single stranded PNA-probes (Peptide Nucleic Acid probes) or TINA-DNA (Twisted Intercalating Nucleic Acids). Gene targets can be specifically labelled with at least about 20 probes obtaining visibly background free specimens. By using appropriately designed triplex forming oligonucleotides, the denaturing procedures can completely be omitted. These results reveal a significant step towards oligonucleotide-FISH maintaining the 3d-nanostructure and even the viability of the cell target. The method is demonstrated with the detection of Her2/neu and GRB7 genes, which are indicators in breast cancer diagnosis and therapy., (Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

The exposure of tumour cells to high doses of ionizing radiation can induce endopolyploidization as an escape route from cell death. This strategy generally results in mitotic catastrophe during the first few days after irradiation. However, some cells escape mitotic catastrophe, polyploidize and attempt to undergo genome reduction and de-polyploidization in order to create new, viable para-diploid tumour cell sub-clones. In search for the consequences of ionizing radiation induced endopolyploidization, genome and chromosome architecture in nuclei of polyploid tumour cells, and sub-nuclei after division of bi- or multi-nucleated cells were investigated during 7 days following irradiation. Polyploidization was induced in p53-function deficient HeLa cells by exposure to 10Gy of X-irradiation. Chromosome territories #1, #4, #12 and centromeres of chromosomes #6, #10, #X were labelled by FISH and analysed for chromosome numbers, volumes and spatial distribution during 7 days post irradiation. The numbers of interphase chromosome territories or centromeres, respectively, the positions of the most peripherally and centrally located chromosome territories, and the territory volumes were compared to non-irradiated controls over this time course. Nuclei with three copies of several chromosomes (#1, #6, #10, #12, #X) were found in the irradiated as well as non-irradiated specimens. From day 2 to day 5 post irradiation, chromosome territories (#1, #4, #12) shifted towards the nuclear periphery and their volumes increased 16- to 25-fold. Consequently, chromosome territories returned towards the nuclear centre during day 6 and 7 post irradiation. In comparison to non-irradiated cells (∼500μm(3)), the nuclear volume of irradiated cells was increased 8-fold (to ∼4000μm(3)) at day 7 post irradiation. Additionally, smaller cell nuclei with an average volume of about ∼255μm(3) were detected on day 7. The data suggest a radiation-induced generation of large intra-nuclear chromosome territories and their repositioning prior to genome reduction., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Cell type specific radial positioning of chromosome territories (CTs) and their sub-domains in the interphase seem to have functional relevance in non-neoplastic human nuclei, while much less is known about nuclear architecture in carcinoma cells and its development during tumor progression. We analyzed the 3D-architecture of the chromosome 8 territory (CT8) in carcinoma and corresponding non-neoplastic ductal pancreatic epithelium. Fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization (FISH) with whole chromosome painting (WCP) probes on sections from formalin-fixed, paraffin wax-embedded tissues from six patients with ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreas was used. Radial positions and shape parameters of CT8 were analyzed by 3D-microscopy. None of the parameters showed significant inter-individual changes. CT8 was localized in the nuclear periphery in carcinoma cells and normal ductal epithelial cells. Normalized volume and surface of CT8 did not differ significantly. In contrast, the normalized roundness was significantly lower in carcinoma cells, implying an elongation of neoplastic cell nuclei. Unexpectedly, radial positioning of CT8, a dominant parameter of nuclear architecture, did not change significantly when comparing neoplastic with non-neoplastic cells. A significant deformation of CT8, however, accompanies nuclear atypia of carcinoma cells. This decreased roundness of CTs may reflect the genomic and transcriptional alterations in carcinoma.

With the improvement and completeness of genome databases, it has become possible to develop a novel fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique called COMBinatorial Oligo FISH (COMBO-FISH). In contrast to other (standard) FISH applications, COMBO-FISH makes use of a bioinformatic approach for probe set design. By means of computer genome database search, oligonucleotide stretches of typical lengths of 15-30 nucleotides are selected in such a way that they all colocalize within a given genome (gene) target. Typically, probe sets of about 20-40 stretches are designed within 50-250 kb, which is enough to get an increased fluorescence signal specifically highlighting the target from the background. Although "specific colocalization" is the only necessary condition for probe selection, i.e. the probes of different lengths can be composed of purines and pyrimidines, we additionally refined the design strategy restricting the probe sets to homopurine or homopyrimidine oligonucleotides so that depending on the probe orientation either double (requiring denaturation of the target double strand) or triple (omitting denaturation of the target strand) strand bonding of the probes is possible. The probes used for the protocols described below are DNA or PNA oligonucleotides, which can be synthesized by established automatized techniques. We describe different protocols that were successfully applied to label gene targets via double- or triple-strand bonding in fixed lymphocyte cell cultures, bone marrow smears, and formalin-fixed, paraffin-wax embedded tissue sections. In addition, we present a procedure of probe microinjection in living cells resulting in specific labeling when microscopically detected after fixation.

Several studies suggest a correlation between genome architecture and gene function. To elucidate mechanisms of gene positioning during cell differentiation and malignant transformation we investigated the nuclear positions of the BCL2 alleles and chromosome 18 territories in different layers of nonneoplastic cervical squamous epithelium and cervical squamous carcinomas in relation to gene expression. Fluorescence in situ hybridization and three-dimensional (3D) image analysis using tissue sections revealed that one BCL2 allele was located more peripherally than the other one in nuclei of the basal layer of nonneoplastic epithelium. During terminal cell differentiation the outer BCL2 allele showed a shift towards the nuclear center. In BCL2-expressing carcinomas the inner BCL2 allele was located more peripherally compared with the basal layer of nonneoplastic epithelium. Our results suggest a functional relevance of unequal allelic BCL2 gene positioning and support the hypothesis that transcriptional BCL2 activation is associated with BCL2 relocation towards the nuclear periphery.

In this study, a novel DNA fluorescence labelling technique, called triple helical COMBO-FISH (Combinatorial Oligo Fluorescence In Situ Hybridisation), was compared to the standard FISH (Fluorescence In Situ Hybridisation by means of commercially available probe kits) by quantitative evaluation of the nuclear position of the hybridisation signals of the Abelson murine leukaemia (abl) region and the breakpoint cluster region (bcr) in 3D-conserved cell nuclei of lymphocytes and CML blood cells. Two sets of 31 homopyrimidine oligonucleotides each, corresponding to co-localising sequences in the abl region of chromosome 9 and in the bcr region of chromosome 22 were synthesised. Probe types and sizes (in bases) as well as the binding mechanisms of both FISH techniques were completely different. In accordance to established findings that cell type specific radial positioning of chromosomes and sub-chromosomal elements is evolutionarily conserved, no significant difference was found between the two FISH techniques for the radial localisation of the barycentre of the analysed genomic loci. Thermal denaturation and hypotonic treatment of cell nuclei subjected to standard FISH, however, led to different absolute radii and volumes of the cell nuclei, in comparison to the quantities determined for the triple helical COMBO-FISH technique; the chromatin appears to shrink in laterally enlarged, flat nuclei. Consequently, the absolute distances of the homologous labelled sites shifted to greater values. For precise quantitative microscopic analysis of genomic loci, fluorescence labelling procedures are recommended that well maintain the native chromatin topology. Triple helical COMBO-FISH may offer such an approach.

Structural analysis and nanosizing of gene domains requires not only high-resolution microscopy but also improved techniques of fluorescence labelling strongly focussed on the gene domains. To investigate the architecture of abl and bcr in blood cell nuclei forming the Philadelphia chromosome in CML, we applied COMBO-FISH using specifically colocalising combinations of triple strand forming oligonucleotide probes for abl on chromosome 9 and bcr on chromosome 22. Each probe set consisting of 31 homopyrimidine oligonucleotides was computer selected from the human genome database. Measurements by 3D microscopy were compared to results obtained after standard FISH using commercially available abl/bcr BAC probes. The relative radial fluorescence distributions in lymphocyte cell nuclei of healthy donors in comparison to cell nuclei of blood cells of CML patients showed a strong correlation in the location of abl and bcr for both labelling techniques. The absolute distances of the homologous bcr domains and the abl domain-nuclear center-abl domain angles in cell nuclei of CML donors differed significantly from those of healthy donors only when COMBO-FISH was applied. These results indicate that COMBO-FISH may be more sensitive than standard FISH in case of slight modifications in the genome architecture.