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We tested swab specimens from pets in households in Ontario, Canada, with human COVID-19 cases by quantitative PCR for SARS-CoV-2 and surveyed pet owners for risk factors associated with infection and seropositivity. We tested serum samples for spike protein IgG and IgM in household pets and also in animals from shelters and low-cost neuter clinics. Among household pets, 2% (1/49) of swab specimens from dogs and 7.7% (5/65) from cats were PCR positive, but 41% of dog serum samples and 52% of cat serum samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 IgG or IgM. The likelihood of SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity in pet samples was higher for cats but not dogs that slept on owners’ beds and for dogs and cats that contracted a new illness. Seropositivity in neuter-clinic samples was 16% (35/221); in shelter samples, 9.3% (7/75). Our findings indicate a high likelihood for pets in households of humans with COVID-19 to seroconvert and become ill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The mammalian microbiota plays a key role in host health and disease susceptibility. However, knowledge of the early-age microbiota of pigs is lacking. The purpose of this study was to use high-throughput next-generation sequencing to characterize the fecal and nasal microbiotas of pigs during early life. Results: Ten commercially-raised pigs were randomly enrolled at birth and sampled throughout the first 7 weeks of life. DNA was extracted from fecal and nasal samples and the hypervariable region V4 of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified. The product was sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq platform and 2 × 250 chemistry. Sequencing data was processed and analyzed with the mothur algorithms using an operational taxonomic unit approach. In total, 4.7 million and 5.4 million high-quality sequences were recovered from fecal and nasal samples, respectively. Analysis revealed that these microbiotas contain a very rich and diverse population of bacteria that display a remarkable evolution during the first 7 weeks of life. During this developmental period, a pig was exposed to an average of 1,976 and 6,257 species of bacteria by way of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, respectively. Aging was significantly associated with an increasing measure of richness and diversity as well as with distinct changes to the core microbiota. At 2-3 weeks post-weaning, the rapidly developing microbiotas appeared to reach a developmental milestone as a relative degree of stability was evident. Conclusions: Pigs are exposed to an incredibly rich and diverse mixture of bacteria during early-life as demonstrated by next-generation sequencing methodology. These findings expand the knowledge of the developing porcine microbiota which is important for understanding susceptibility to disease, particularly for vulnerable neonatal pigs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Clostridium difficile is an important cause of intestinal infections in some animal species and animals might be a reservoir for community associated human infections. Here we describe a collection of animal associated C. difficile strains from 12 countries based on inclusion criteria of one strain (PCR ribotype) per animal species per laboratory. Results Altogether 112 isolates were collected and distributed into 38 PCR ribotypes with agarose based approach and 50 PCR ribotypes with sequencer based approach. Four PCR ribotypes were most prevalent in terms of number of isolates as well as in terms of number of different host species: 078 (14.3% of isolates; 4 hosts), 014/020 (11.6%; 8 hosts); 002 (5.4%; 4 hosts) and 012 (5.4%; 5 hosts). Two animal hosts were best represented; cattle with 31 isolates (20 PCR ribotypes; 7 countries) and pigs with 31 isolates (16 PCR ribotypes; 10 countries). Conclusions This results show that although PCR ribotype 078 is often reported as the major animal C. difficile type, especially in pigs, the variability of strains in pigs and other animal hosts is substantial. Most common human PCR ribotypes (014/020 and 002) are also among most prevalent animal associated C. difficile strains worldwide. The widespread dissemination of toxigenic C. difficile and the considerable overlap in strain distribution between species furthers concerns about interspecies, including zoonotic, transmission of this critically important pathogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The nasal microbiota of pigs has been poorly assessed but could play a role in carriage of important microorganisms such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The objectives of this study were to describe the nasal microbiota in slaughter age pigs, to evaluate the impact of farm management on the nasal microbiota and to provide a preliminary assessment of the influence of the microbiota on MRSA carriage. Results: Nasal swabs were collected from five MRSA positive and eight MRSA negative pigs on one farm that used a liquid feeding system and routine tylosin treatment, and seven MRSA negative pigs from an antibiotic-free farm that used conventional feeding. A total of 946310 sequences passed all quality control filters. The number of sequences per sample ranged from 4307 to 165656 (mean 56092, SD 40007). CatchAll analysis of richness predicted a mean of 1749 OTUs (range 213-3736, SD 996). Overall, 6291 OTUs were identified, yet 5125 (81%) were identified less than 10 times and the 12 most abundant OTUs accounted for 80.7% of sequences. Proteobacteria predominated in all but two samples. Liquid-fed/tylosin-exposed pigs had significantly lower relative abundances of Verrucomicrobia (P = 0.004), Fibrobacteres (P = <0.0001) and sequences unclassified at the phylum level (P = 0.028). When comparing only liquid-fed pigs, MRSA carriers had significantly more Bacteroidetes (P = 0.037) than MRSA negative pigs. 124 genera were identified, with Moraxella accounting for 35.4% of sequences. In the Jaccard index tree, five of eight MRSA positive pigs clustered closely together, as did six of the seven conventionally-fed pigs. A significant difference was identified between conventional and liquid-fed pigs using parsimony test with the Jaccard (P < 0.001) but not the Yue&Clayton (P= 0.26) index. There were no significant differences between MRSA positive and negative pigs (P = 0.133 and 0.175). OTUs belonging to Firmicutes were the main indicators of MRSA negative pigs, including Lactobacillus and another Lactobacillaceae and Staphylococcus. Conclusions: Farm management can influence the nasal microbiota in pigs, but no impact of the microbiota on MRSA carriage was identified. Studies that further define the impact of management on the microbiota, and the impact of the microbiota on pathogen carriage are indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Analgesia is often indicated in rabbits undergoing surgical procedures or suffering from various painful conditions and the most common adverse effects associated with NSAIDs occur in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The objective of this study was to determine the potential effect of long-term (21 days) meloxicam administration on the fecal bacterial microbiota in healthy rabbits. Samples of hard feces were collected from six rabbits treated with meloxicam (1 mg/kg orally once every 24 h) on days 0,6,14 and 21. Next generation sequencing of V4 16S rRNA gene products was performed. Results: A total of 2589912 V4 rRNA gene sequences passed all quality control filters. Firmicutes predominated (82.0 ± 6.2%). Sixteen other phyla were also identified but other than Verrucomicrobia (4.4 ± 4.9%), all accounted for less than 1% of the identified sequences. Within Firmicutes, Clostridia was the dominant class, accounting for 76% of operational taxon units (OTUs). In general, there were only few differences observed between time points and different rabbits at the phylum level. A significant change was observed in the relative abundance of Proteobacteria over the 4 time points (P = 0.02). Conclusions: The gastrointestinal tract of rabbits harbors dense and diverse microbiota. Significant alteration of the hard fecal microbiota does not appear to be a considerable adverse effect expected in rabbits treated for 21 days with oral meloxicam at a dose of 1 mg/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Hand hygiene is considered one of the most important infection control measures in human healthcare settings, but there is little information available regarding hand hygiene frequency and technique used in veterinary clinics. The objectives of this study were to describe hand hygiene practices associated with routine appointments in companion animal clinics in Ontario, and the effectiveness of a poster campaign to improve hand hygiene compliance. Results Observation of hand hygiene practices was performed in 51 clinics for approximately 3 weeks each using 2 small wireless surveillance cameras: one in an exam room, and one in the most likely location for hand hygiene to be performed outside the exam room following an appointment. Data from 38 clinics were included in the final analysis, including 449 individuals, 1139 appointments before and after the poster intervention, and 10894 hand hygiene opportunities. Overall hand hygiene compliance was 14% (1473/10894), while before and after patient contact compliance was 3% (123/4377) and 26% (1145/4377), respectively. Soap and water was used for 87% (1182/1353) of observed hand hygiene attempts with a mean contact time of 4 s (median 2 s, range 1-49 s), while alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) was used for 7% (98/1353) of attempts with a mean contact time of 8 s (median 7 s, range 1-30 s). The presence of the posters had no significant effect on compliance, although some staff reported that they felt the posters did increase their personal awareness of the need to perform hand hygiene, and the posters had some effect on product contact times. Conclusions Overall hand hygiene compliance in veterinary clinics in this study was low, and contact time with hand hygiene products was frequently below current recommendations. Use of ABHR was low despite its advantages over hand washing and availability in the majority of clinics. The poster campaign had a limited effect on its own, but could still be used as a component of a multimodal hand hygiene campaign. Improving the infection control culture in veterinary medicine would facilitate future campaigns and studies in this area, as well as overall patient and staff safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background In hospitals, Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) surveillance relies on unvalidated guidelines or threshold criteria to identify outbreaks. This can result in false-positive and negative cluster alarms. The application of statistical methods to identify and understand CDI clusters may be a useful alternative or complement to standard surveillance techniques. The objectives of this study were to investigate the utility of the temporal scan statistic for detecting CDI clusters and determine if there are significant differences in the rate of CDI cases by month, season, and year in a community hospital. Methods Bacteriology reports of patients identified with a CDI from August 2006 to February 2011 were collected. For patients detected with CDI from March 2010 to February 2011, stool specimens were obtained. Clostridium difficile isolates were characterized by ribotyping and investigated for the presence of toxin genes by PCR. CDI clusters were investigated using a retrospective temporal scan test statistic. Statistically significant clusters were compared to known CDI outbreaks within the hospital. A negative binomial regression model was used to identify associations between year, season, month and the rate of CDI cases. Results Overall, 86 CDI cases were identified. Eighteen specimens were analyzed and nine ribotypes were classified with ribotype 027 (n=6) the most prevalent. The temporal scan statistic identified significant CDI clusters at the hospital (n=5), service (n=6), and ward (n=4) levels (P ⩽ 0.05). Three clusters were concordant with the one C. difficile outbreak identified by hospital personnel. Two clusters were identified as potential outbreaks. The negative binomial model indicated years 2007-2010 (P ⩽ 0.05) had decreased CDI rates compared to 2006 and spring had an increased CDI rate compared to the fall (P=0.023). Conclusions Application of the temporal scan statistic identified several clusters, including potential outbreaks not detected by hospital personnel. The identification of time periods with decreased or increased CDI rates may have been a result of specific hospital events. Understanding the clustering of CDIs can aid in the interpretation of surveillance data and lead to the development of better early detection systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Clostridium difficile has been shown to be a nosocomial pathogen associated with diarrhoea and pseudomembranous colitis in hospitalised patients and the infection is believed to be acquired nosocomially. Recent studies have shown the occurrence of C. difficile in food animals which may act as a source of infection to humans.The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of C. difficile in retail raw beef, cow, sheep, goat, camel and buffalo meat in Iran. Method From April to October 2012, a total of 660 raw meat samples from beef, cow, sheep, goat, camel and buffalo were purchased from 49 butcheries in Isfahan and Khuzestan provinces, Iran, and were evaluated for the presence of C. difficile using a method including selective enrichment in C. difficile broth, subsequent alcohol shock-treatment and plating onto C. difficile selective medium. C. difficile isolates were tested for the presence of toxin genes and were typed using PCR ribotyping. Results In this study, 13 of 660 meat samples (2%) were contaminated with C. difficile. The highest prevalence of C. difficile was found in buffalo meat (9%), followed by goat meat (3.3%), beef meat (1.7%), cow (0.94%) and sheep meat (0.9%). Seven of the 13C. difficile strains (53.9%) were positive for tcdA, tcdB and cdtB toxin genes and were classified as ribotype 078. Four strains (30.8%) were positive tcdA, and tcdB, and one strain (7.7%) was possessed only tcdB. The remaining isolate was non-toxigenic. Susceptibilities of 13C. difficile isolates were determined for 11 antimicrobial drugs using the disk diffusion assay. Resistance to clindamycin, gentamycin, and nalidixic acid was the most common finding. Conclusions To our knowledge, the present study is the first report of the isolation of C. difficile from raw buffalo meat. This study indicates the potential importance of food, including buffalo meat, as a source of transmission of C. difficile to humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antibiotic resistance is a global problem with a complex epidemiology. We aimed to investigate the prevalence, molecular epidemiology and risk factors for ESBL-E colonization in race-horses, since this unique equine population is found under intensive management, training and medical care. A prospective cross-sectional study was performed involving fecal samples collected from thoroughbred horses that were housed at a Woodbine racetrack in Ontario, Canada. Samples were enriched in Luria-Bertani broth, plated onto CHROMagarESBL plates, and sub-cultured to obtain pure cultures. ESBL production was confirmed using combination disc assay. Bacterial species were identified via MALDI-TOF and antibiotic susceptibility profiles were assessed using Vitek-2. E. coli sequence types were determined using Multi Locus Sequence Type (MLST) analysis. Medical records were reviewed and assessment of risk for individual variables was performed (SPSS). Overall, 169 adult thoroughbred horses, originating from 16 different barns, were sampled. ESBL-E colonization rate was 12% (n=21/169),22 isolates ESBL-E were molecularly studied (one horses had two isolates). The main species was E. coli (91%) and the major ESBL gene group was CTX-M-1 (59%). Other ESBL-E species were Proteus hauseri and Enterobacter cloacae (one isolate each). Nine different E. coli sequence types were identified: ST1730 (in 2 horses from different barns), ST10 (in 4 horses, from 3 different barns), ST1250 (in 3 horses, from 3 different barns), ST1403 (in 3 horses, from one barn), and five single isolates sequence types- ST1462, ST4527, ST7870, ST2008, and ST86. Two new E. coli sequence types were identified. Sixty-four percent of total isolates were defined as multidrug resistant. Resistance rates to antibiotics of ESBL-E were 71% for trimethoprim-sulfa, 62% for tetracycline, 62% for gentamicin and no resistance was identified for quinolones, amikacin and carbapenems. ESBL-E colonized horses originated from 8/16 different barns,whereas 48% (10/21) of them originated from one specific barn. Overall, antibiotic treatment in the previous month was found as a risk factor for ESBL-E colonization (P<0.05). Our findings demonstrate the potential diverse reservoir of ESBL-E in race-horses. Multidrug resistant bacteria should be further investigated to improve antibiotic treatment regimens and equine welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE To evaluate adherence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (MRSP) to 5 suture materials commonly used in small animal surgery. SAMPLE 10 epidemiologically unrelated MRSP isolates (obtained from dogs with clinical infections) that had strong biofilm-forming ability and 5 types of suture. PROCEDURES The 5 types of suture evaluated were monofilament polyglecaprone 25, monofilament polydioxanone, triclosan-coated (TC)–monofilament polydioxanone, braided polyglactin 910, and barbed monofilament polydioxanone. Suture segments were incubated in standard suspensions of MRSP for 2 minutes. Segments were then placed in tryptone soy broth and incubated overnight. After incubation, segments were rinsed with PBS solution and sonicated to dislodge adherent bacteria. Resulting suspensions were used to create serial dilutions that were plated, incubated overnight, and counted the following day. Bacterial adherence to 1 segment of each suture type was assessed by use of scanning electron microscopy. RESULTS There was significantly less adherence of MSRP to TC–monofilament polydioxanone than to polyglecaprone 25, polyglactin 910, barbed monofilament polydioxanone, and monofilament polydioxanone. There was significantly less adherence of MSRP to polyglecaprone than to polyglactin 910. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Barbed suture had a bacterial adherence profile comparable to that for monofilament suture. Adherence of MRSP was greatest for braided polyglactin 910. Use of TC–monofilament polydioxanone can be considered for patients that are at high risk of developing surgical site infections and for which a surgeon chooses a multifilament suture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the impact of gentamicin, silver, or both additives in polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) beads on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (MRSP) biofilm formation in vitro. SAMPLE 4 preparations of PMMA beads (formed with no additive [control], gentamicin, silver, and gentamicin and silver). PROCEDURES Beads from each group were exposed to 10 MRSP isolates known to be strong biofilm formers. Following incubation, the beads were rinsed to remove planktonic bacteria, then sonicated to dislodge biofilm-associated bacteria. Resulting suspensions were serially diluted, plated on blood agar, and incubated overnight; CFUs were counted. Variance of mean CFU counts following log10 transformation was analyzed among PMMA groups. RESULTS None of the PMMA additives tested completely inhibited MRSP biofilm formation. There was a significant effect of gentamicin and gentamicin plus silver on this variable, compared with controls, but not of silver alone. There was no difference between gentamicin and gentamicin plus silver. When only isolates not susceptible to gentamicin were evaluated, there were no significant differences among PMMA additive groups. Within gentamicin-susceptible isolates, there was an impact of gentamicin and gentamicin plus silver, but no impact of silver alone and no difference between gentamicin and gentamicin plus silver. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Gentamicin-impregnated PMMA was effective at reducing biofilm formation of gentamicin-susceptible MRSP isolates but had no effect on isolates not susceptible to gentamicin. Silver-impregnated PMMA had no effect on MRSP biofilm formation. Results suggested that gentamicin-impregnated PMMA may not be effective in vivo against MRSP isolates not susceptible to gentamicin. Antibacterial efficacy of silver should not be assumed without proper testing of the target bacteria and specific silver compound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clostridium difficile is an important cause of enteric infections in humans. Recently, concerns have been raised regarding whether animals could be a source of C. difficile spores. Although colonization has been identified in a number of domestic species, the ability of commensal pests to serve as a reservoir for C. difficile has not been well investigated. The objective of this study was to determine whether urban rats (Rattus spp.) from Vancouver, Canada, carry C. difficile. Clostridium difficile was isolated from the colon contents of trapped rats and was characterized using ribotyping, toxinotyping, and toxin gene identification. Generalized linear mixed models and spatial analysis were used to characterize the ecology of C. difficile in rats. Clostridium difficile was isolated from 95 of 724 (13.1%) rats, although prevalence differed from 0% to 46.7% among city blocks. The odds of being C. difficile positive decreased with increasing weight (odds ratio [OR], 0.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.53 to 0.87), suggesting that carriage is more common in younger animals. The strains isolated included 9 ribotypes that matched recognized international designations, 5 identified by our laboratory in previous studies, and 21 "novel" ribotypes. Some strains were clustered geographically; however, the majority were dispersed throughout the study area, supporting environmental sources of exposure and widespread environmental contamination with a variety of C. difficile strains. Given that urban rats are the source of a number of other pathogens responsible for human morbidity and mortality, the potential for rats to be a source of C. difficile for humans deserves further consideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous communities in the Arctic often face unique drinking water quality challenges related to inadequate infrastructure and environmental contamination; however, limited research exists on waterborne parasites in these communities. This study examined Giardia and Cryptosporidium in untreated surface water used for drinking in Iqaluit, Canada. Water samples (n = 55) were collected weekly from June to September 2016 and tested for the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium using microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Exact logistic regressions were used to examine associations between parasite presence and environmental exposure variables. Using microscopy, 20.0% of samples tested positive for Giardia (n = 11) and 1.8% of samples tested positive for Cryptosporidium (n = 1). Low water temperatures (1.1 to 6.7 °C) and low air temperatures (-0.1 to 4.5 °C) were significantly associated with an increased odds of parasite presence (p = 0.047, p = 0.041, respectively). These results suggest that surface water contamination with Giardia and Cryptosporidium may be lower in Iqaluit than in other Canadian regions; however, further research should examine the molecular characterization of waterborne parasites to evaluate the potential human health implications in Northern Canada.