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A displacement factor (DF) may be used to describe the efficiency of using wood-based products or fuels instead of fossil-based ones to reduce net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, the DFs of individual products and their production volumes could not be used alone to evaluate the climate impacts of forest utilization. For this reason, in this study we have developed a methodology to assess a required displacement factor (RDF) for all wood products and bioenergy manufactured and harvested in a certain country in order to achieve zero CO 2 equivalent emissions from increased forest utilization over time in comparison with a selected baseline harvesting scenario. Input data for calculations were produced with the simulation model, Monsu, capable of predicting the carbon stocks of forests and wood-based products. We tested the calculations in Finnish conditions in a 100-year time horizon and estimated the current average DF of manufactured wood-based products and fuels in Finland for the interpretation of RDF results. The results showed that if domestic wood harvesting will be increased by 17–33% compared to the basic scenario, the RDF will be 2.0 to 2.4 tC tC−1 for increased wood use in 2017–2116. However, the estimated average DF of manufactured wood-based products and fuels currently in Finland was less than 1.1 tC tC−1. The results indicate strongly that the increased harvesting intensity from the current situation would represent a challenge for the Finnish forest-based bioeconomy from the viewpoint of climate change mitigation. For this reason, there is an immediate need to improve reliability and applicability of the RDF approach by repeating corresponding calculations in different circumstances and by improving estimations of DF s on country levels. • Displacement factor (DF) describes the substitution climate impact of wood use. • We estimated required displacement factor (RDF) to achieve zero emissions. • RDF should be 2.0–2.4 tC tC−1 for increased wood use in 2017–2116 in Finland. • RDF appears greater than the estimated current average DF. • This is a threat for forest-based bioeconomy from the climate change viewpoint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the evolution of European net sinks towards 2030 and the European Union's (EU) climate neutrality target by 2050. The EU's current land use policy for 2021–2030 is divided into two periods: 2021–2025 and 2026–2030. The national inventory data from several databases and statistical analyses are used to examine the trends and drivers and to forecast future forest sinks and the net sinks of the land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector. Our forecasts suggest that national forest sinks will be short of the agreed forest reference levels in most member states in 2021–2025, with a total of 128 MtCO2eq. For 2026–2030, the net sink for the whole EU LULUCF sector will be short of the EU target by 298 MtCO2eq. Thus, most member states must design more efficient LULUCF policies to fulfil their national targets. Furthermore, the decreasing trends in the LULUCF sinks also emphasize the need to reduce emissions and to increase the sinks in most member states so that the EU can achieve its climate neutrality goal by 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The sustainability aspects of land use were assessed with an environmentally extended input–output model of Finland in 2002. The main economic industries and products causing land use were identified and the impacts were estimated with three indicators: biocapacity, human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) and ecosystem degradation potential (EDP). The results correlated well with expert assessments on the threats to biodiversity, although the influence of animal farming was not clear in all indicators. Most of the domestic land use was caused by final demand outside Finland. Based on a simplified trade balance, Finland was a net exporter of land area, mainly through wood products. Two thirds of the domestic land use was driven by export production. Therefore a regional consumption based approach is not sufficient to mitigate and control the environmental impacts of land use even in a developed country like Finland. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An environmentally extended input–output (EE-IO) analysis – environmental impacts of material flows caused by the Finnish economy – was carried out in order to improve data on production and consumption in Finland. The study resulted in the ENVIMAT model, which can be used to analyze the relationship between material flows, environmental impacts and the economy. The model is based on monetary and physical input–output tables and an environmental life-cycle impact assessment. This article summarizes the main methodological aspects and findings regarding the material flows and climate impacts caused by the Finnish economy in 2002 and 2005. The Finnish model has relatively detailed input data with 150 industries and 918 products and the data on imports was assessed according to a mixed approach with the help of life-cycle inventory data. The results of the model showed that the Finnish economy uses imported material resources as much as domestic resources. Life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by imports were equivalent to 70–80% of domestic emissions. The GHG emissions embodied in imports (emissions abroad) and exports (emissions within Finland) were of the same magnitude. The analysis showed that the service sector accounted for 44% of GHG emissions caused by the domestic final use of products. Analysis of the results also showed that the indicator of total material requirement (TMR) should not be used for environmental impact comparisons of products and services. In the future, the aim is to use the ENVIMAT model for assessing temporal changes in the economy; for monitoring sustainable development; for planning climate change mitigation; and for identifying important factors in the economy and assessing their impacts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The decisions on risk management (RM) of contaminated sites in Finland have typically been driven by practical factors such as time and money. However, RM is a multifaceted task that generally involves several additional determinants, e.g. performance and environmental effects of remediation methods, psychological and social factors. Therefore, we adopted a multi-criteria decision analysis approach and developed a decision support tool (DST) that is viable in decision-making in such a complex situation. The basic components of the DST are based on the Dutch REC system. However, our DST is more case-specific and allows the consideration of the type, magnitude and scale of contamination, land use, environmental conditions and socio-cultural aspects (e.g. loss of cultural heritage, image aspects). The construction of the DST was started by structuring the decision problem using a value tree. Based on this work we adopted the Multi-Attribute Value Theory (MAVT) for data aggregation. The final DST was demonstrated by two model sites for which the RM alternatives and site-specific data were created on the basis of factual remediation projects and by interviewing experts. The demonstration of the DST was carried out in a workshop where representatives of different stakeholders were requested to rank and weight the decision criteria involved. To get information on the consistency of the ranking of the RM alternatives, we used different weighting techniques (ratio estimation and pair-wise weighting) and alternative ways to treat individual respondents'' weights in calculating the preference scores for each RM alternative. These dissimilar approaches resulted in some differences in the preference order of the RM alternatives. The demonstration showed that attention has to be paid to the proper description of the site, the principles of the procedure and the decision criteria. Nevertheless, the procedure proved to enable efficient communication between different stakeholders and the identification of the preferred RM option. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy use is one of the key indicators for developing more sustainable agricultural practices. For this reason, energy use in the production of conventional and organic milk and rye bread in Finland was studied by conducting a life cycle inventory (LCI). The product systems of milk and rye bread consisted of farming, production of fuels, electricity and fertilisers, as well as the processing phases of milk and bread, i.e. the dairy and the bakery. Transportation of fuels, raw materials and the final products was also taken into account. Primary energy consumption was 6.4GJ in average conventional milk production and 4.4GJ in average organic milk production, calculated per 1000l of milk. For rye bread the values were 15.3GJ (conventional) and 13.3GJ (organic) per 1000kg of rye bread. The proportion of renewable energy in the product systems studied varied between 7 and 16% of the total primary energy use, being somewhat higher in organic production. In milk production, energy use efficiency can be increased by favouring organic production. Making changes in the energy use patterns of bakeries would be the fastest way to affect the energy profile of bread, because bakery is responsible for 70 and 80% of the total energy consumption in conventional and organic bread production, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The concept of eco-efficiency is commonly referred to as a business link to sustainable development. In this article, eco-efficiency is examined at a regional level as an approach to promoting the competitiveness of economic activities in the Finnish Kymenlaakso region and mitigating their harmful impacts on the environment. The aim is to develop appropriate indicators for monitoring changes in the eco-efficiency of the region. A starting point is to produce indicators for the environmental and economic dimensions of regional development and use them for measuring regional eco-efficiency. The environmental impact indicators are based on a life-cycle assessment method, producing different types of environmental impact indicators: pressure indicators (e.g., emissions of CO2), impact category indicators (e.g., CO2 equivalents in the case of climate change), and a total impact indicator (aggregating different impact category indicator results into a single value). Environmental impact indicators based on direct material input, total material input, and total material requirement of the Kymenlaakso region are also assessed. The economic indicators used are the gross domestic product, the value added, and the output of the main economic sectors of Kymenlaakso. In the eco-efficiency assessment, the economic and environmental impact indicators are monitored in the same graph. In a few cases eco-efficiency ratios can also be calculated (the economic indicators are divided by the environmental indicators). Output (= value added + intermediate consumption) is used as an economic indicator related to the environmental impact indicators, which also cover the upstream processes of the region's activities. In the article, we also discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using the different environmental impact indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life-cycle impact assessments (LCIAs) are complex because they almost always involve uncertain consequences relative to multiple criteria. Several authors have noticed that this is precisely the sort of problem addressed by methods of decision analysis. Despite several experiences of using multipleattribute decision analysis (MADA) methods in LCIA, the possibilities of MADA methods in LCIA are rather poorly elaborated in the field of life-cycle assessment. In this article we provide an overview of the commonly used MADA methods and discuss LCIA in relation to them. The article also presents how different frames and tools developed by the MADA community can be applied in conducting LCIAs. Although the exact framing of LCIA using decision analysis still merits debate, we show that the similarities between generic decision analysis steps and their LCIA counterparts are clear. Structuring of an assessment problem according to a value tree offers a basis for the definition of impact categories and classification. Value trees can thus be used to ensure that all relevant impact categories and interventions are taken into account in the appropriate manner. The similarities between multiattribute value theory (MAVT) and the current calculation rule applied in LCIA mean that techniques, knowledge, and experiences derived from MAVT can be applied to LCIA. For example, MAVT offers a general solution for the calculation of overall impact values and it can be applied to help discern sound from unsound approaches to value measurement, normalization, weighting, and aggregation in the LCIA model. In addition, the MAVT framework can assist in the methodological development of LCIA because of its well-established theoretical foundation. The relationship between MAVT and the current LCIA methodology does not preclude application of other MADA methods in the context of LCIA. A need exists to analyze the weaknesses and the strengths of different multiple-criteria decision analysis methods in order to identify those methods most appropriate for different LCIA applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests and forest industries can contribute to climate change mitigation by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere, by storing it in biomass, and by fabricating products that substitute more greenhouse gas emission intensive materials and energy. The objectives of the study are to specify alternative scenarios for the diversification of wood product markets and to determine how an increasingly diversified market structure could impact the net carbon emissions (NCEs) of forestry in Finland. The NCEs of the Finnish forest sector were modelled for the period 2016–2056 by using a forest management simulation and optimization model for the standing forests and soil and separate models for product carbon storage and substitution impacts. The annual harvest was fixed at approximately 70 Mm3, which was close to the level of roundwood removals for industry and energy in 2016. The results show that the substitution benefits for a reference scenario with the 2016 market structure account for 9.6 Mt C (35.2 Mt CO2 equivalent [CO2 eq]) in 2056, which could be further increased by 7.1 Mt C (26 Mt CO2 eq) by altering the market structure. As a key outcome, increasing the use of by‐products for textiles and wood–plastic composites in place of kraft pulp and biofuel implies greater overall substitution credits compared to increasing the level of log harvest for construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Circular economy (CE) is currently a popular concept promoted by the EU, by several national governments and by many businesses around the world. However, the scientific and research content of the CE concept is superficial and unorganized. CE seems to be a collection of vague and separate ideas from several fields and semi-scientific concepts. The objective of this article is to contribute to the scientific research on CE. First, we will define the concept of CE from the perspective of WCED sustainable development and sustainability science. Second, we will conduct a critical analysis of the concept from the perspective of environmental sustainability. The analysis identifies six challenges, for example those of thermodynamics and system boundaries, that need to be resolved for CE to be able to contribute to global net sustainability. These six challenges also serve as research themes and objectives for scholars interested in making progress in sustainable development through the usage of circular economy. CE is important for its power to attract both the business community and policy-making community to sustainability work, but it needs scientific research to secure that the actual environmental impacts of CE work toward sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an urgent need to develop scenarios and roadmaps for a more sustainable future than where business-as-usual is heading. This paper addresses the use of sensitivity analysis for analyzing environmentally extended input–output (EEIO) models in order to develop cost-effective and comprehensive scenario building. Main components of resource use, emission intensity and final demand are extracted from the complete network of interactions contained in the input–output tables of the national accounts. The method is demonstrated using a detailed Finnish EEIO-model (ENVIMAT). Based on the results, only 0.3% of the 23 103 interactions were found to have a significant effect on Finnish greenhouse gas emissions. The same parameters were also relevant for waste generation and land use, but not for gross domestic product. The identified main components were tested by structural decomposition. Actual development of greenhouse gas emissions from 2002 to 2005 was compared to that predicted by updating only the identified components. Based on the results, the development of greenhouse gas emissions could be predicted with high accuracy using only the identified main components. Generalizing the results, sensitivity analysis can assist in identifying the main components to be included in future scenarios for sustainable development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This special issue of the Journal of Cleaner Production addresses system transformation by examining progress, stumbling blocks and opportunities for sustainable consumption and production in a specific country, Finland, set within a global context. The articles present and analyse top-down policy efforts, bottom-up efforts by municipalities, activities by companies and actions by consumers. They provide material for discussions on the shift from sustainability planning to enhancing system transformation, on the implications of globalisation for system boundaries, on the transformation of complex systems, on learning processes and on methods of assessing transitions. Without providing a singular solution, the articles show that issues of sustainability should be explored in different ways within different contexts, and experimented with. There is a continuous need for transformations and reflexive learning, since conditions are likely to become very different, not least due to climate change. The notion of change and transformation will be high on the agenda of the Rio+20 conference, as will similar efforts to promote large-scale transformations of consumption and production. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The environmental impacts of Finnish imports were modeled using alternative emission datasets. The first dataset was based on domestic technology assumptions from the Finnish environmentally extended input–output (EE-IO) model. In the second dataset, emissions of the largest volumes of imported goods were substituted for EIOLCA (USA) data and in the third option for data from Ecoinvent and the Danish LCA Food Database. Comparative results show that the environmental impacts of imports based on domestic emission intensities are mostly lower than the alternative approaches. Considering the high level of Finnish environmental protection we concluded that the impacts of imports are underestimated using domestic emission intensities. Additionally, we concluded that hybrid IO modeling will increase the accuracy of IO modeling by using process-based data for the most relevant material flows until a multi-regional IO model for Finland has been developed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Environmental legislation and voluntary improvement activities at Finnish enterprises have led to a situation where attempts have been made to prevent accidental emissions resulting from abnormal and unexpected events at industrial sites by using environmental risk analysis. However, the consensus among companies and authorities was that there was no clear idea on what an environmental risk analysis should contain. A project with the aim of preparing a guideline for conducting environmental risk analysis according to good practises was commissioned. This article summarises the main contents of the guideline, focusing on the risk terminology and instructions about how to perform an environmental risk analysis in practice. The framework developed is strongly based on the risk analysis techniques and traditions of industrial safety. Environmental risk analysis consists of scope definition, risk identification, risk assessment and proposals for risk reduction and mitigation actions. A consequence matrix in association with a risk matrix is an important element of risk analysis, and supports the decision making from the viewpoint of risk tolerability and acceptance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We studied how different thinning regimes and initial age structures of a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forest landscape affect the radiative forcing of forest biomass production and use. We considered the effects of forest carbon sequestration, substitution of materials and fossil fuels with forest biomass, and timber use efficiency. The initial age structures of our hypothetical forest landscapes in the middle boreal zone in Finland were young, middle-aged, and mature. Forest landscapes were thinned using either the current thinning recommendations (baseline) or maintaining 20% higher or 20% lower stocking over the 80-year study period. We employed forest ecosystem model simulations together with a life cycle assessment tool. The highest carbon sequestration was obtained by maintaining higher stocking in the landscapes. The initially middle-aged and mature age structures resulted in the strongest cooling of the climate in the first three decades of the simulation, but the highest cooling was found in the young age structure. However, radiative forcing was less sensitive to the thinning than to the substitution or timber use efficiency. Our results indicate that modeled climate impacts are affected by both initial age structure and forest management, which should be considered when generalizing the climate change mitigation potential of forests and forestry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drained peatlands are a large emission source and a shift to paludiculture (rewetting and cultivation of wet-tolerant plants) is emerging as a potential emission reduction measure. Paludiculture can potentially results in emission savings from direct emissions, product substitution and carbon storage, but the whole life cycle climate impacts are rarely studied. In this study, we evaluated two paludiculture product systems (cattail (Typha) construction board and common reed (Phragmites) horticultural vermicompost) with cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) applied global sensitivity analysis to identify, which parts of the product system would need more research and product development to ensure net emission savings. Based on the results, both product systems result in much lower emissions than current agricultural land use and may be net greenhouse gas sinks (average − 6.0 tCO 2 eq ha−1 for cattail board; −3.0 tCO 2 eq ha−1 for reed growing media). The uncertainty in the product life cycle is concentrated to a few key processes: the direct CO 2 and CH 4 emissions from paludiculture, construction board additives, and CH 4 emissions from vermicomposting reed. Further research to these would minimize the uncertainty and help in maximizing the climate mitigation potential of paludiculture derived products. [Display omitted] • Paludiculture reduces emissions from agricultural peatlands. • Paludiculture products can store carbon and substitute emission intensive products. • Benefits can be increased by identifying high emission process stages in production. • Life cycle assessment can help in guiding process development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been recognized in the EU in the context of ‘Integrated Product Policy’ (IPP) as providing “the best framework for assessing the potential environmental impacts of products currently available.” A study to promote the use of LCA-based product information was designed, with the following objectives: (a) to develop different benchmarks to which the LCA results of various products can be compared, (b) to study how consumers understand the different benchmarks and what proposals for improvement they have, and (c) to propose a few presentation formats and benchmarks for presenting LCA-based information in communications to consumers. Here we present the final results, i.e., the suggested benchmarks and presentation formats, ‘eco-benchmark’. We also present some lessons derived from the feedback gained from consumers and other stakeholders, and point out future directions for improving the benchmarks and their utilization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Eco-efficiency emerged in the 1990s as a measure of “the efficiency with which ecological resources are used to meet human needs.” Eco-efficiency indicators as tools for regional sustainability policy were demonstrated in a Life-Environment project, ECOREG, in the Finnish region of Kymenlaakso. A participatory approach was utilised to produce indicators that are relevant for regional decision-makers and that will actually be used. The approach established a system through which decision-makers are able to monitor changes using several economic-environmental ratio indicators, and at the same time obtain information on the social progress taking place in the region. In the future, there will be a need for an ongoing dialogue among the different actors in the region in order to ensure that the indicators are indeed used to promote sustainable development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]