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The FK506-binding protein 51 (FKBP51, encoded by the FKBP5 gene) is an established risk factor for stress-related psychiatric disorders such as major depression. Drug discovery for FKBP51 has been hampered by the inability to pharmacologically differentiate against the structurally similar but functional opposing homolog FKBP52, and all known FKBP ligands are unselective. Here, we report the discovery of the potent and highly selective inhibitors of FKBP51, SAFit1 and SAFit2. This new class of ligands achieves selectivity for FKBP51 by an induced-fit mechanism that is much less favorable for FKBP52. By using these ligands, we demonstrate that selective inhibition of FKBP51 enhances neurite elongation in neuronal cultures and improves neuroendocrine feedback and stress-coping behavior in mice. Our findings provide the structural and functional basis for the development of mechanistically new antidepressants.

B(0)AT2, encoded by the SLC6A15 gene, is a transporter for neutral amino acids that has recently been implicated in mood and metabolic disorders. It is predominantly expressed in the brain, but little is otherwise known about its function. To identify inhibitors for this transporter, we screened a library of 3133 different bioactive compounds. Loratadine, a clinically used histamine H1 receptor antagonist, was identified as a selective inhibitor of B(0)AT2 with an IC50 of 4 μM while being less active or inactive against several other members of the SLC6 family. Reversible inhibition of B(0)AT2 was confirmed by electrophysiology. A series of loratadine analogues were synthesized to gain insight into the structure-activity relationships. Our studies provide the first chemical tool for B(0)AT2.

The 41-amino acid peptide corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) is a major modulator of the mammalian stress response. Upon stressful stimuli, it binds to the corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1 (CRF(1)R), a typical member of the class-B G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and a prime target in the treatment of mood disorders. To chemically probe the molecular interaction of CRF with the transmembrane domain of its cognate receptor, we developed a high-throughput conjugation approach that mimics the natural activation mechanism of class-B GPCRs. An acetylene-tagged peptide library was synthesized and conjugated to an azide-modified high-affinity carrier peptide derived from the CRF C-terminus using copper-catalyzed dipolar cycloaddition. The resulting conjugates reconstituted potent agonists and were tested in situ for activation of the CRF(1) receptor in a cell-based assay. By use of this approach we (i) defined the minimal sequence motif that is required for full receptor activation, (ii) identified the critical functional groups and structure-activity relationships, (iii) developed an optimized, highly modified peptide probe with high potency (EC(50) = 4 nM) that is specific for the activation domain of the receptor, and (iv) probed the behavioral role of CRF receptors in living mice. The membrane recruitment by a high-affinity carrier enhanced the potency of the tethered peptides by >4 orders of magnitude and thus allowed the testing of very weak initial fragments that otherwise would have been inactive on their own. As no chromatography purification of the test peptides was necessary, a substantial increase in screening throughput was achieved. Importantly, the peptide conjugates can be used to probe the endogenous receptor in its native environment in vivo.

Adaptive changes in serotonergic 5HT1 receptor signalling are believed to underlie the therapeutic effectiveness of antidepressant drugs. Since cells are continuously exposed to neurotransmitters/neuromodulators, spatially and temporally integrated, the responsiveness of a receptor system is dependent upon the physio-pathological state of the cell and the interaction between different neurotransmitters. In the present work, we investigated heterologous regulation of 5HT1 receptors induced by norepinephrine (NE) in human platelets. NE platelet treatment induced a time and concentration dependent 5HT1 receptor desensitisation mediated by both alpha and beta receptors through activation of intracellular protein kinases. In particular NE, through PKC activation, regulated 5HT1 receptor phosphorylation on threonine residues, causing in turn serotonin receptor-G protein uncoupling and functional responsiveness drop. These results suggest that high NE levels (released i.e. during stress disorders) may play an important role in regulating the 5HT1 responsiveness and in controlling effectiveness of drugs acting on these neurotransmitter systems.

In the sweet spot: Cocrystal structures of engineered neurotransmitter transporters reveal the binding mode of commonly prescribed antidepressants, providing a basis for a rational drug design for this class of proteins. The picture shows the structure of the dopamine transporter of Drosophila melanogaster in complex with the antidepressant nortriptyline.

In endothelial cells, erythropoietin receptors (EPORs) mediate the protective, proliferative and angiogenic effects of EPO and its analogues, which act as EPOR agonists. Because hormonal receptors undergo functional changes upon chronic exposure to agonists and because erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) are used for the long-term treatment of anemia, it is critical to determine the mechanism by which EPOR responsiveness is regulated at the vascular level after prolonged exposure to ESAs. Here, we investigated EPOR desensitization/resensitization in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) upon exposure to three ESAs with different pharmacokinetic profiles, epoetin alpha (EPOα), darbepoetin alpha (DarbEPO) and continuous EPOR activator (CERA). These agonists all induced activation of the transcription factor STAT-5, which is a component of the intracellular pathway associated with EPORs. STAT-5 activation occurred with either monophasic or biphasic kinetics for EPOα/DarbEPO and CERA, respectively. ESAs, likely through activation of the STAT-5 pathway, induced endothelial cell proliferation and stimulated angiogenesis in vitro, demonstrating a functional role for epoetins on endothelial cells. All epoetins induced EPOR desensitization with more rapid kinetics for CERA compared to EPOα and DarbEPO. However, the recovery of receptor responsiveness was strictly dependent on the type of epoetin, the agonist concentration and the time of exposure to the agonist. EPOR resensitization occurred with more rapid kinetics after exposure to low epoetin concentrations for a short period of desensitization. When the highest concentration of agonists was tested, the recovery of receptor responsiveness was more rapid with CERA compared to EPOα and was completely absent with DarbEPO. Our results demonstrate that these three ESAs regulate EPOR resensitization by very different mechanisms and that both the type of molecule and the length of EPOR stimulation are factors that are critical for the control of EPOR functioning in endothelial cells. The differences observed in receptor resensitization after stimulation with the structurally different ESAs are most likely due different control mechanisms of receptor turnover at the intracellular level.

The cyclic adenosine monophosphate responsive element binding (CREB) protein is a transcription factor involved in different neural processes, such as learning, neuroplasticity and the modulation of stress response. Alterations in the CREB pathway have been observed in the brains and lymphocytes of patients affected by depression and alcohol abuse. Given the lack of information, our study aimed at investigating the levels of total and activated CREB protein in lympho-monocytes of 20 drug-free patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD), as compared with 20 healthy control subjects.Blood samples were collected from patients and healthy control subjects on the same time and lympho-monocytes were isolated according to standardized methods. CREB protein levels and activation were measured by means of immunoenzymatic techniques.The results showed that PTSD patients had statistically lower levels of total CREB protein in lympho-monocytes than healthy control subjects. On the contrary, no difference in the activated CREB protein was detected.These findings, albeit preliminary, would suggest that the CREB pathway might be involved in the pathophysiology of PTSD. Future studies should clarify if specific PTSD symptom clusters might be related to the CREB pathway.

In the sweet spot: Cocrystal structures of engineered neurotransmitter transporters reveal the binding mode of commonly prescribed antidepressants, providing a basis for a rational drug design for this class of proteins. The picture shows the structure of the dopamine transporter of Drosophila melanogaster in complex with the antidepressant nortriptyline.

A2A adenosine receptors are considered an excellent target for drug development in several neurological and psychiatric disorders. It is noteworthy that the responses evoked by A2A adenosine receptors are regulated by D2 dopamine receptor ligands. These two receptors are co-expressed at the level of the basal ganglia and interact to form functional heterodimers. In this context, possible changes in A2A adenosine receptor functional responses caused by the chronic blockade/activation of D2 dopamine receptors should be considered to optimise the therapeutic effectiveness of dopaminergic agents and to reduce any possible side effects. In the present paper, we investigated the regulation of A2A adenosine receptors induced by antipsychotic drugs, commonly acting as D2 dopamine receptor antagonists, in a cellular model co-expressing both A2A and D2 receptors. Our data suggest that the treatment of cells with the classical antipsychotic haloperidol increased both the affinity and responsiveness of the A2A receptor and also affected the degree of A2A–D2 receptor heterodimerisation. In contrast, an atypical antipsychotic, clozapine, had no effect on A2A adenosine receptor parameters, suggesting that the two classes of drugs have different effects on adenosine–dopamine receptor interaction. Modifications to A2A adenosine receptors may play a significant role in determining cerebral adenosine effects during the chronic administration of antipsychotics in psychiatric diseases and may account for the efficacy of A2A adenosine receptor ligands in pathologies associated with dopaminergic system dysfunction. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11302-010-9201-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Deciphering the mechanisms regulating the generation of new neurons and new oligodendrocytes, the myelinating cells of the central nervous system, is of paramount importance to address new strategies to replace endogenous damaged cells in the adult brain and foster repair in neurodegenerative diseases. Upon brain injury, the extracellular concentrations of nucleotides and cysteinyl-leukotrienes (cysLTs), two families of endogenous signaling molecules, are markedly increased at the site of damage, suggesting that they may act as "danger signals" to alert responses to tissue damage and start repair. Here we show that, in brain telencephalon, GPR17, a recently deorphanized receptor for both uracil nucleotides and cysLTs (e.g., UDP-glucose and LTD(4)), is normally present on neurons and on a subset of parenchymal quiescent oligodendrocyte precursor cells. We also show that induction of brain injury using an established focal ischemia model in the rodent induces profound spatiotemporal-dependent changes of GPR17. In the lesioned area, we observed an early and transient up-regulation of GPR17 in neurons expressing the cellular stress marker heat shock protein 70. Magnetic Resonance Imaging in living mice showed that the in vivo pharmacological or biotechnological knock down of GPR17 markedly prevents brain infarct evolution, suggesting GPR17 as a mediator of neuronal death at this early ischemic stage. At later times after ischemia, GPR17 immuno-labeling appeared on microglia/macrophages infiltrating the lesioned area to indicate that GPR17 may also acts as a player in the remodeling of brain circuitries by microglia. At this later stage, parenchymal GPR17+ oligodendrocyte progenitors started proliferating in the peri-injured area, suggesting initiation of remyelination. To confirm a specific role for GPR17 in oligodendrocyte differentiation, the in vitro exposure of cortical pre-oligodendrocytes to the GPR17 endogenous ligands UDP-glucose and LTD(4) promoted the expression of myelin basic protein, confirming progression toward mature oligodendrocytes. Thus, GPR17 may act as a "sensor" that is activated upon brain injury on several embryonically distinct cell types, and may play a key role in both inducing neuronal death inside the ischemic core and in orchestrating the local remodeling/repair response. Specifically, we suggest GPR17 as a novel target for therapeutic manipulation to foster repair of demyelinating wounds, the types of lesions that also occur in patients with multiple sclerosis.

In this work we reported the synthesis of new potential ATI antagonists through the replacement of the biphenyltetrazole portion of the losartan with biphenylaldoximic (2) and phenylsalicylaldoximic (3a) moieties. Moreover, also the trifluoromethylpyrazole analogue of 3a (3b) was prepared. The new compounds synthesized were evaluated for their AT1 affinity through binding assay carried out on rat liver membranes using [ 125 I]Sar1,Ile8-angiotensina II as radioligand.

Taking as model compound the amido-derivative 1 described in the literature from Duncia's group as a good AngII antagonist, we have synthesized a new series of compounds (2-7) in which the principal structural variations reside in the inversion of the amidic sequence between the two phenyl ring and/or in the type of heteroaromatic substituent linked to this portion. The new compounds synthesized were evaluated for their AT1 affinity through binding assays carried out on rat liver membranes using ( 125 I)Sar1,Ile8-angiotensin II as radioligand.