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Introduction The etiology of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young people continues to attract much attention. This meta-analysis aimed to identify the most frequent causes of SCD in individuals aged ≤35 years, the differences between athletes and non-athletes and geographic areas. Methods Studies published between 01/01/1990 and 01/31/2020 and evaluating post-mortem the aetiology of SCD in young individuals (≤35 years) were included. Individuals were divided into athletes and non-athletes. Studies that did not report separate data between athletes and non-athletes were excluded. Results Thirty-four studies met the inclusion criteria, and a total population of 5,060 victims of SCD were analyzed (2,890 athletes, 2,170 non-athletes). Comparing the causes of SCD between athletes and non-athletes, non-ischemic left ventricular scar (NILVS) (5.1% vs. 1.1%, p=0.01) was more frequent in the former, while coronary artery disease (CAD) (19.6% vs. 9.1%, p=0.009), arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) (11.5% vs. 4.7%, p=0.03) and channelopathies (8.4% vs. 1.9%, p=0.02) were more frequent in the latter. In studies published in the last decade, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) (p=0.002), dilated cardiomyopathy (p=0.047), and anomalous origin of coronary arteries (AOCA) (p=0.009) were more frequently the causes of SCD in athletes while aortic dissection (0.022) was the cause in non-athletes. HCM (p=0.01) and AOCA (p=0.004) were more frequently the causes of SCD in the US while ACM (p=0.001), structurally normal heart (p=0.02), and channelopathies (p=0.02) were more frequent in Europe. Conclusions Among the causes of SCD, NILVS was the more frequent cause in athletes, while CAD, ACM and channelopathies were more frequent causes in non-athletes. The causes of SCD differ between the US and Europe.

The relief of congestion is crucial to improve heart failure (HF) patient's quality of life and prognosis. N-terminal-pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) is a well-known marker of congestion, although with limited specificity. Peak atrial longitudinal strain (PALS) by speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) is an index of intracardiac pressure and HF prognosis. We aimed to determine the association between NT-proBNP and PALS and its prognostic implications in patients with HF.Patients hospitalized for de-novo or recurrent HF and outpatients with chronic HF were included in this retrospective study. Patients with missing data, previous cardiac surgery, non-feasible STE were excluded. Clinical, laboratory and echocardiographic data were collected. STE was performed on echocardiographic records. Primary endpoint was a combination of all-cause death and HF hospitalization.Overall, 388 patients were included (172 acute HF, 216 chronic HF, mean age = 65 ± 12 years, 37% female). Mean LV ejection fraction = 31 ± 9%. Global PALS showed a significant inverse correlation with NT-proBNP in acute and chronic HF (all p 0.001). During a median follow-up of 4 years, 180 patients reached the combined endpoint. NT-proBNP (AUC = 0.87) and global PALS (AUC = 0.82) were good predictors of the combined endpoint. Global PALS was the only independent predictor of the combined endpoint. Optimal risk stratification for the composite endpoint was provided combining PALS ≤15% and NTproBNP ≥874.5 ng/l.Global PALS is associated with NT-proBNP in acute and chronic HF and may be used as additional index of congestion to optimize therapeutic management. The combination of global PALS and NT-proBNP could enhance the prognostic stratification of HF.

Thanks to the improvement in mitral regurgitation (MR) diagnostic and therapeutic management, with the introduction of minimally invasive techniques which have considerably reduced the individual surgical risk, the optimization of the timing for MR “open” or percutaneous surgical treatment has become a main concern which has highly raised scientific interest. In fact, the current indications for intervention in MR, especially in asymptomatic patients, rely on echocardiographic criteria with high severity cut-offs that are fulfilled only when not only mitral valve apparatus but also the cardiac chambers’ structure and function are severely impaired, which results in poor benefits for post-operative clinical outcome. This led to the need of new indices to redefine the optimal surgical timing in these patients. Speckle tracking echocardiography provides early markers of cardiac dysfunction due to subtle myocardial impairment; therefore, it could offer pivotal information in this setting. In fact, left ventricular and left atrial strains have already shown evidence about their usefulness in recognizing MR impact not only on symptoms and quality of life but also on cardiovascular events and new-onset atrial fibrillation in these patients. Moreover, right ventricular strain could be used to identify those patients with advanced cardiac damage and different grades of right ventricular dysfunction, which entails higher risks for cardiac surgery that could overweigh surgical benefits. This review aims to describe the importance of reconsidering the timing of intervention in MR and to analyze the potential additive value of speckle tracking echocardiography in this clinical setting.

In patients with severe mitral regurgitation (MR), additional echocardiographic indices could be helpful to optimize surgical timing before irreversible left heart myocardial dysfunction has occurred. We investigated the correlation of left atrial (LA) strain by speckle tracking echocardiography with prognosis after mitral surgery for severe MR, and its association with LA fibrosis.71 patients with primary severe MR undergoing pre-operative echocardiographic assessment were initially enrolled. Exclusion criteria were: other valvular diseasemoderate, history of coronary artery disease, heart failure (HF), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, left bundle branch block, previous pacemaker implantation, heart transplantation, poor acoustic window. The primary endpoint was the occurrence of composite events (HF and mortality); the secondary endpoint was post-operative functional capacity (NYHA and Borg CR10 class). LA fibrosis was assessed by atrial biopsy specimens in a subset of patients.Of 65 eligible patients, the primary endpoint occurred in 30 patients (medium follow-up: 3.7 ± 1 years for event-group, 6.8 ± 1 years for non-event group). After Kaplan-Meier analysis, peak atrial longitudinal strain (PALS) provided good risk stratification (5-year event-free survival:90 ± 5% for PALS≥21% vs 30 ± 9% for PALS21%, p 0.0001); it was an independent and incremental predictor of outcome in four multivariate Cox adjusted models. There was also an association between PALS and the secondary endpoint (NYHA: rGlobal PALS emerged as a reliable predictor of outcome and functional capacity for severe primary MR, and as a marker of LA fibrosis.

The electrocardiographic (ECG) definition of Brugada syndrome (BS) can be challenging because benign ECG abnormalities, such as right bundle branch block (RBBB), may mimic pathological ECG characteristics of BrS. However, although myocardial delay and deformation can be quantified by advanced imaging, it has not yet been used to differentiate between BrS and RBBB. The aim of this study was to characterize the electro-mechanical behavior of the heart of patients with type-1 BrS and isolated complete RBBB in order to differentiate these conditions.In this two-center study, 66 subjects were analyzed by standard and speckle-tracking echocardiography (STE): 22 type-1 BrS, 24 isolated complete RBBB, and 20 healthy subjects. The participants were not treated by any drug potentially influencing myocardial conduction.Standard echocardiographic parameters did not differ among the groups. The greatest right ventricular (RV) mechanical dispersion was found in RBBB. Mean absolute deviations (MADs) of time-to-peak longitudinal strain calculated for each left ventricular (LV) region were greater in patients with RBBB as compared to BrS (p .01). No differences were found between BrS and controls (p = .36). MADs in the basal segments in RBBB group were greater than MADs found in BrS group and controls (37.3 ms vs. 26.7 ms and 29.0 ms, respectively, p .05). The greatest differences were found in the antero-septal, anterior, lateral, and infero-septal basal segments.Advanced echocardiographic techniques may help to differentiate between BrS and RBBB. Indeed, STE allows to identify an electro-mechanical conduction delay in RBBB patients that is not found in patients affected by type-1 BrS.

Background Oesophageal changes and injuries were recorded after atrial fibrillation(AF) ablation procedures. The reduction of power in the posterior left atrial(LA) wall(closest to the oesophagus) and the monitoring of temperature in the oesophagus(OE) reduced oesophageal injuries. The intracardiac-echocardiography(ICE) with a Cartosound module provides two-dimensional imaging (2D) to assess detailed cardiac anatomy and its relationship with the OE. The aim of this study was to highlight the safety and feasibility of 3D-reconstruction of the oesophageal course in left atrial catheter ablation(CA) procedures without OE temperature probe or quadripolar catheter to guide ICE OE reconstruction. Methods 180 patients(PT) underwent left atrial ablation. AF ablation were 125(69.5%); incisional left atrial tachycardias(IAFL) were 37(20.6%); left atrial tachycardias(LAT) were 19(10.6%). The LA and pulmonary vein anatomies were rendered by traditional electroanatomic mapping(EAM) and merged with an ICE anatomic map. In 109 PT ICE imaging was used to create a geometry of the OE(group A). A quadripolar catheter was used in 71 PT to show OE course associated to ICE(group B). Results Ablation energy delivery was performed outside the broadest OE anatomy borders. The duration of procedures was longer in group B vs group A Fluoroscopy time was lower in Group A than Group B(Group A 7 ± 3.2 vs 19.2 ± 2.4 min; p Conclusions OE monitoring with ICE is safe and feasible. Oesophageal anatomy is complex and variable. Many PT will have a broad oesophageal boundary, which increases the risk of untoward thermal injury during posterior LA ablation. ICE with 3D construction of the OE enhances border detection of the OE, and as such, should decrease the risk of oesophageal injury by improving avoidance strategies without intra-oesophageal catheter visualization.

Severe mitral regurgitation (MR) is a common valve disease which is associated with high mortality, if only managed medically. MR produces chronic and progressive volume overload with left atrial (LA) and left ventricular (LV) dilatation and dysfunction, atrial fibrillation (AF) and eventually myocardial fibrosis, irrespective of ejection fraction (EF). Surgical correction (mitral valve repair) of MR removes the volume overload, hence unmasks pre-operative LV structure and function disturbances, including reduced EF and global longitudinal and circumferential strain, as well as LA volume and strain. This review aims at describing LA remodeling before and after surgical repair.

Cor pulmonale is the condition in which the right ventricle undergoes morphological and/or functional changes due to diseases that affect the lungs, the pulmonary circulation, or the breathing process. Depending on the speed of onset of the pathological condition and subsequent effects on the right ventricle, it is possible to distinguish the acute cor pulmonale from the chronic type of disease. Echocardiography plays a central role in the diagnostic and therapeutic work-up of these patients, because of its non-invasive nature and wide accessibility, providing its greatest usefulness in the acute setting. It also represents a valuable tool for tracking right ventricular function in patients with cor pulmonale, assessing its stability, deterioration, or improvement during follow-up. In fact, not only it provides parameters with prognostic value, but also it can be used to assess the efficacy of treatment. This review attempts to provide the current standards of an echocardiographic evaluation in both acute and chronic cor pulmonale, focusing also on the findings present in the most common pathologies causing this condition.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread in nearly 200 countries in less than 4 months since its first identification; accordingly, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID 2019) has affirmed itself as a clinical challenge. The prevalence of pre-existing cardiovascular diseases in patients with COVID19 is high and this dreadful combination dictates poor prognosis along with the higher risk of intensive care mortality. In the setting of chronic heart failure, SARS-CoV-2 can be responsible for myocardial injury and acute decompensation through various mechanisms. Given the clinical and epidemiological complexity of COVID-19, patiens with heart failure may require particular care since the viral infection has been identified, considering an adequate re-evaluation of medical therapy and a careful monitoring during ventilation.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) outbreak is a current global healthcare burden, leading to the life‐threatening severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2). However, evidence showed that, even if the prevalence of COVID‐19 damage consists in pulmonary lesions and symptoms, it could also affect other organs, such as heart, liver, and spleen. Particularly, some infected patients refer to the emergency department for cardiovascular symptoms, and around 10% of COVID‐19 victims had finally developed heart injury. Therefore, the use of echocardiography, according to the safety local protocols and ensuring the use of personal protective equipment, could be useful firstly to discriminate between primary cardiac disease or COVID‐19–related myocardial damage, and then for assessing and monitoring COVID‐19 cardiovascular complications: acute myocarditis and arrhythmias, acute heart failure, sepsis‐induced myocardial impairment, and right ventricular failure derived from treatment with high‐pressure mechanical ventilation. The present review aims to enlighten the applications of transthoracic echocardiography for the diagnostic and therapeutic management of myocardial damage in COVID‐19 patients.

The left coronary cusp is the commonest site of origin for coronary cusp PVC. Catheter ablation without fluoroscopy is highly effective, feasible, and safe but it could be related to risks because of proximity to the coronary arteries. The use of ICE integration allowed an improvement in the safety and efficiency of these procedures.

Functional mitral regurgitation (MR) in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) without left ventricular dysfunction, namely, atrial functional MR, has been increasingly recognized. Whether mitral annular dilatation causes MR in patients without left ventricular dysfunction has remained controversial; however, recent studies using novel imaging technologies, including 3-dimensional echocardiography, have shown that significant functional MR can sometimes occur in AF patients with significant dilatation of mitral annulus and left atrium. Additional contributors such as atriogenic leaflet tethering, annulus area to leaflet area imbalance resulting from insufficient leaflet remodeling and reduced annular contractility, increased valve stress by flattened saddle shape of the annulus, and left atrial dysfunction may be important triggers of atrial functional MR in the presence of dilated mitral annulus and left atrium. The prevalence of atrial functional MR is reported to be between 3% and 15% in AF patients and those with atrial functional MR are associated with worse clinical outcomes. Because there are few published data regarding therapeutic strategies of atrial functional MR, understanding the principles of therapeutic options and their target mechanisms is important with regards to clinical practice until sufficient evidence is established. In this review, the known mechanisms, clinical implications and, when possible, potential therapeutic options of atrial functional MR are discussed.

Myocardial fibrosis (MF) represents the underlying pathologic condition of many cardiac disease, leading to cardiac dysfunction and heart failure (HF). Biopsy studies have shown the presence of MF in patients with decompensating HF despite apparently normal cardiac function. In fact, basic indices of left ventricular (LV) function, such as LV ejection fraction (EF), fail to recognize subtle LV dysfunction caused by MF. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) with late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) is currently recognized as the gold standard imaging investigation for the detection of focal and diffuse cardiac chambers MF; however, its use is limited by its availability and the use of contrast agents, while echocardiography remains the first level cardiac imaging technique due to its low cost, portability and high accessibility. Advanced echocardiographic techniques, above all speckle-tracking echocardiography (STE), have demonstrated reliability for early detection of structural myocardial abnormalities and for the prediction of prognosis in acute and chronic HF. Myocardial strain of both ventricles and also left atrium has been shown to correlate with the degree of MF, providing useful prognostic information in several diseases, such as HF, cardiomyopathies and valvular heart disease. This paper aims to provide an overview of the pathophysiology of MF and the clinical application of STE for the prediction of left and right heart chambers MF in HF patients.

Aims In patients with heart failure (HF), chronically raised left ventricular (LV) filling pressures lead to progressive left atrial (LA) dysfunction and fibrosis. We aimed to assess the correlation of LA reservoir strain (peak atrial longitudinal strain, PALS) by speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) and LA fibrosis assessed by myocardial biopsy in patients undergoing heart transplantation (HTx). Methods and results Forty-eight patients with advanced HF [mean age 51.2 ± 8.1 years, 29% females; LV ejection fraction ≤25% and New York Heart Association (NYHA) class III–IV] referred for HTx were enrolled and underwent pre-operative echocardiographic evaluation, right heart catheterization, and cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Exclusion criteria were non-sinus rhythm, mechanical ventilation, severe mitral/tricuspid regurgitation, or other valvular disease and poor acoustic window. After HTx, LA bioptic samples were collected and analysed to determine the extent of myocardial fibrosis (%). LA fibrosis showed correlation with PALS (R = −0.88, P Conclusion Emerging as a possible index of myocardial fibrosis in patients with advanced HF, PALS could help to optimize the management and the selection of those patients with irreversible LA structural damage for advanced therapeutic strategies.

The interpretation of 12-lead resting electrocardiogram (ECG) in patients with a definitive diagnosis or with the suspicion of a cardiomyopathy represents a cornerstone for the diagnostic work up and management of patients. Although low electrocardiographic QRS voltages (LQRSV) detected by 12-lead resting ECG have historically been acknowledged by physicians, in view of recent evidence on the demonstration of myocardial scar by cardiac magnetic resonance and its relevance as a cause of sudden cardiac death even in young individuals, a new interest has been raised about the utility of LQRSV in the clinical practice. Beyond their diagnostic value, LQRSV have also demonstrated a prognostic role in different cardiomyopathies. The present review summarizes the diagnostic and prognostic value of LQRSV in cardiomyopathies, reporting the new evidence, primarily based on advanced imaging studies, supporting the clinical utility of this parameter.

Aortic regurgitation (AR) continues to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality in pediatric patients. Although echocardiographic parameters are well established for the adults, there are no clear cut-off values for AR severity in children. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is considered a "gold standard" for a quantitative evaluation of the AR, but it is not widely available. This study assesses which echo parameter can accurately define AR severity as assessed by CMR in pediatric patients. A total of 27 pediatric patients (12 ± 3 years, range 6 to 18 years) with different degree of AR underwent echo assessment within an average of 35 days from CMR. CMR included phase-contrast velocity-encoded imaging for the measurement of regurgitant fraction (RF). Severe AR was defined as RF33%. Echo evaluation included vena contracta, pressure half time, the ratio between the AR jet and the left ventricular outflow tract diameter (jet/left ventricular outflow tract), presence of holodiastolic reversal flow in abdominal aorta, the ratio between the velocity-time integral of the reversal flow over the forward flow in descending aorta (echoRF). Among the studied parameters, the strongest predictor of severe AR, as assessed by CMR, was echoRF. Receiver-operating characteristic curve showed, for a cutoff0.38, an area under the curve of 0.886 (p0.0001), a sensitivity of 71%, and a specificity of 100%. Correlation coefficient between echoRF and RF was R = 0.929 (p0.0001). In conclusion, echoRF is a strong echo-Doppler marker of severe AR in the pediatric population. This parameter should be routinely added in the standard echo evaluation of pediatric patients with AR.

The noninvasive estimation of diastolic function with echocardiography as a surrogate of left ventricular filling pressure is considered an essential step in the clinical evaluation of patients with conditions predisposing to heart failure (HF). Latest algorithms for the assessment of diastolic dysfunction (DD) lay on several 2D standard parameters and describe a precise grading to quantify its severity. The persistence of a "gray zone" of values in which DD quantification is not possible, together with an epidemiological increase of conditions predisposing to heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), has led to the search and use of parameters with higher specificity and sensitivity: one of these is left atrial (LA) longitudinal strain in the frame of speckle tracking echocardiography (STE). LA anatomy and mechanics are crucial for preserving left ventricular (LV) function and asymptomatic condition of the patient. LA longitudinal strain is angle-independent, thus overcoming Doppler limitations, and provides reproducible measures of LA deformation. This review examines the latest evidences concerning the use of LA longitudinal strain in the assessment of diastolic function and HFpEF, with a particular focus on its role in standard echocardiographic algorithms or as a lone parameter to guide diagnosis and therapeutic management.

Aims In acute and chronic heart failure (HF), the relief of congestion is one of the pivotal elements to improve patient’s quality of life and prognosis. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) is a well-known marker of cardiovascular (CV) congestion in HF, although with limited specificity. Peak atrial longitudinal strain (PALS) by speckle tracking echocardiography is emerging as an index of left ventricular (LV) filling pressure and prognosis in HF, however, its role as a marker of congestion should be further elucidated. The aim of our study was to determine the association between NT-proBNP and PALS in patients acute and chronic HF. Methods and results Patients hospitalized for de-novo or recurrent acute HF and patients with chronic HF referred to our echo-labs for follow-up evaluation were included in this retrospective study. Patients with missing data, previous cardiac surgery, heart transplant and/or left ventricular assist device implantation, non-feasible speckle tracking analysis were excluded. Clinical characteristics, laboratory examinations, transthoracic echocardiography data were collected. Speckle tracking analysis was performed offline on the echocardiographic records. Follow up data were obtained via electronical records or phone-calls. The primary clinical endpoint was a combination of all-cause death and HF hospitalization. The overall study cohort included 388 patients (172 with chronic HF and 216 with chronic HF). Mean age was 65 ± 12, 37% were female. Most patients had reduced LV systolic function (mean LV ejection fraction = 30 ± 10%; mean LV global longitudinal strain = −8.3 ± 3.9%). Patients with acute HF presented higher values of NT-proBNP than those with chronic HF [median (interquartile range) = 6039 (2989–13 535) pg/ml vs. 544 (200–1533) pg/ml] and lower global PALS =10.4 (6.3–16.45)% vs. 15.6 (10.6–21)%. Global PALS showed a significant inverse correlation with NT-proBNP both in acute and chronic HF (all P Conclusions Global PALS is associated with NT-proBNP in acute and chronic HF and may be used as additional index of congestion to optimize therapeutic management in these patients. Both global PALS and NT-proBNP confirmed to be accurate prognostic markers in HF.

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in high-income countries. Exercise prescription is an effective tool for primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention and the cardiovascular benefits of physical activity are well established, ranging from improving the quality of life to reducing mortality. A tailored approach based on patient's personal and clinical characteristics represents a cornerstone for the benefits of exercise prescription. The use of cardiopulmonary exercise testing is well-established for a tailored exercise prescription, as ventilatory thresholds allow to define exercise intensity in a highly individualized manner.

Right ventricular failure (RVF) after left ventricular assist device (LVAD) implant is associated with increasing morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to identify the best predictors of RVF post LVAD-implant among biochemical, haemodynamic and echocardiographic parameters. From 2009 to 2019, 38 patients who underwent LVAD implantation at our centre were prospectively enrolled. Preoperative clinical, laboratory, echocardiographic and haemodynamic parameters were reported. Overall, eight patients (21%) developed RVF over time, which revealed to be strongly related to overall mortality. Pulmonary artery pulsatility index (PAPi) resulted to be the most significant right heart catheterization index in discriminating RVF vs no RVF patients [(1.32 ± 0.26 vs. 3.95 ± 3.39 respectively) p = 0.0036]. Regarding transthoracic echocardiography, RVF was associated with reduced free wall right ventricular longitudinal strain (fw-RVLS) (− 7.9 ± 1.29 vs. − 16.14 ± 5.83) (p

Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: None. Introduction. The etiology of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young people is still debated. The aim of this meta-analysis was to identify the most frequent causes of SCD in individuals aged ≤35 years, the differences between athletes and nonathletes and among geographic areas. Methods. Studies published between 01/01/1990 and 01/31/2020 and evaluating post-mortem the etiology of SCD in young individuals (≤35 years) were included. Individuals were divided in athletes and nonathletes. Studies that did not report separately data between athletes and nonathletes were excluded. Results. Thirty-four studies met the inclusion criteria and a total population of 5,060 victims of SCD were analysed (2,890 athletes, 2,170 nonathletes). Structurally normal heart, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy, and anomalous origin of coronary arteries (AOCA) were the most frequent causes of SCD in athletes while coronary artery disease (CAD), arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM), and channelopathies were frequent causes of SCD in nonathletes. The number of SCDs due to ischemic heart disease (19.6% vs. 9.1%, p = 0.009), ACM (11.5% vs. 4.7%, p = 0.03) and channelopathies (8.4% vs. 1.9%, p = 0.02) was higher in nonathletes comparing with athletes. SCD due to non-ischemic left ventricular scar (5.1% vs. 1.1%, p = 0.01) was more frequent in athletes. HCM (p = 0.01) and AOCA (p = 0.004) were more frequently cause of SCD in US while ACM (p = 0.001), structurally normal heart (p = 0.02), and channelopathies (p = 0.02) in Europe. Conclusions. Structurally normal heart, HCM, AOCA were frequent causes of SCD in athletes while CAD, ACM and channelopathies in nonathletes. The causes of SCD differ between US and Europe.

Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: None. Background. Although structured exercise training is strongly recommended in cardiac patients, uncertainties exist about the methods for determining exercise intensity (EI) and their correspondence with effective EI obtained by ventilatory thresholds. We aimed to determine the first (VT1) and second ventilatory threshold (VT2) in cardiac patients, sedentary subjects and athletes comparing VT1 and VT2 with EI defined by recommendations. Methods. We prospectively enrolled 350 subjects (mean age: 50.7 ± 12.9 years; 167 cardiac patients, 150 healthy sedentary subjects, 33 competitive endurance athletes). Each subject underwent ECG, echocardiography, and cardiopulmonary exercise testing. The percentages of peak VO2, peak heart rate (HR), and HR reserve were obtained at VT1 and VT2, and compared with EI definition proposed by the recommendations. Results. VO2 at VT1 corresponded to high rather than moderate EI in 67.1% and in 79.6% of cardiac patients, applying the definition of moderate exercise by the previous recommendations and the 2020 guidelines, respectively. Most of cardiac patients had VO2 values at VT2 corresponding to very-high rather than high EI (59.9% and 50.3%, by previous recommendations and 2020 guidelines, respectively). A better correspondence between ventilatory-thresholds and recommended EI domains was observed in healthy subjects and in athletes (90% and 93.9%, respectively). Conclusions. EI definition based on percentages of peak HR and peak VO2 may misclassify the effective EI and the discrepancy between the individually determined and the recommended EI is particularly relevant in cardiac patients. A ventilatory threshold-based rather than a range-based approach is advisable in order to define an appropriate level of EI. Abstract Figure.

Funding Acknowledgements Type of funding sources: None. Background. Premature ventricular beats (PVBs) are not an unusual finding and their interpretation is sometimes challenging. Unfortunately, few data on the characteristics of PVBs that correlate with the risk of an underlying heart disease are available in athletes. Objectives. The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the diagnostic and prognostic value of PVBs characteristics in competitive athletes. Methods. From a cohort of 1,751 athletes evaluated at our sports cardiology centre, we enrolled 112 competitive athletes Results. The majority (79%) of athletes exhibited monomorphic PVBs with a fascicular or infundibular pattern (common morphologies). A definitive diagnosis of cardiac disease was reached in 26 athletes (23% of the entire population) and correlated with uncommon PVBs morphology (p Conclusions. Infundibular and fascicular PVBs were the most common morphologies observed in athletes with ventricular arrhythmias referred for cardiological evaluation. Morphology and complexity of PVBs, but not their number, predicted the probability of an underlying disease. Athletes with PVBs and negative investigation showed a good prognosis. Abstract Figure.

Speckle tracking echocardiography is an imaging method, based on analysis of 2D echocardiographic images, that is useful in providing information on tissue deformation in different cardiac diseases. Cardiac amyloidosis is a complex pathological entity that can be confused with other causes responsible for cardiac hypertrophy, and for this reason, it can be misdiagnosed, especially in the early stages. Cardiac magnetic resonance and endomyocardial biopsy are reference methods for specific diagnosis, but their use is limited by a number of factors, both of a logistical and technical nature. Considering the limits of standard 2D echocardiography, speckle tracking echocardiography can be a useful method to enhance the clinical suspicion, to provide prognostic information, and to address patients more appropriately towards reference methods for definitive diagnosis.

Speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) cannot be considered a recent technique anymore. Its application has gained growing importance over the last decade in several clinical settings, and the deformation analysis has fully entered in diagnostic algorithms and guidelines of various pathologies. STE allows to track the displacement of "speckles" in two-dimensional (2D) echocardiographic images in an angle-independent way and to assess their movement (strain) during the cardiac cycle. Its high feasibility, reproducibility, and accuracy have been widely demonstrated. In this review, we describe how STE has been applied to different aspects of the daily clinical practice, including ischemic heart diseases, heart valve disease, heart failure, and prognostication, highlighting the possible added value that strain parameters have shown over the years.

Background Dipyridamole stress echocardiography (DSE) represents a fundamental test in patients with suspected coronary artery disease (CAD). The diagnosis of microvascular disease is still challenging. We aimed to determine the diagnostic value of left ventricular (LV) layer-specific longitudinal (LS) and circumferential strain (CS) by Speckle Tracking in detecting CAD during DSE and to study if they can help in discriminate between a negative echo and a suspected microvascular angina. Methods and results We enrolled 66 patients with known or suspected CAD. All underwent standard DSE. We identified 3 groups according to the result of DSE (36 negative DSE, 19 positive DSE, 11 indicatives for microvascular disease). Wall motion score index, global LV LS and CS (global longitudinal strain [GLS] and global circumferential strain [GCS]), and layer-specific LV LS and CS were measured at rest and peak stress. The Delta between rest and peak stress values was calculated. GLS increased after injection in negative DSE and microvascular disease while reducing in positive DSE. Endocardial GCS and transmural GCS values were stable in microvascular disease while increasing significantly in negative DSE, helping in the diagnosis. The specific analysis of endocardial LS showed the most powerful difference between healthy and macrovascular CAD patients, both for LS and CS. Conclusions Global circumferential strain can be a new valuable added tool in the echocardiographic diagnosis of microvascular disease. Endocardial GLS is the best indicator of an altered wall deformation in the presence of macrovascular ischemia.

The etiology of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in young people continues to attract much attention. This meta-analysis aimed to identify the most frequent causes of SCD in individuals aged ≤35 years, the differences between athletes and non-athletes and geographic areas.Studies published between 01/01/1990 and 01/31/2020 and evaluating post-mortem the aetiology of SCD in young individuals (≤35 years) were included. Individuals were divided into athletes and non-athletes. Studies that did not report separate data between athletes and non-athletes were excluded.Thirty-four studies met the inclusion criteria, and a total population of 5,060 victims of SCD were analyzed (2,890 athletes, 2,170 non-athletes). Comparing the causes of SCD between athletes and non-athletes, non-ischemic left ventricular scar (NILVS) (5.1% vs. 1.1%, p=0.01) was more frequent in the former, while coronary artery disease (CAD) (19.6% vs. 9.1%, p=0.009), arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) (11.5% vs. 4.7%, p=0.03) and channelopathies (8.4% vs. 1.9%, p=0.02) were more frequent in the latter. In studies published in the last decade, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) (p=0.002), dilated cardiomyopathy (p=0.047), and anomalous origin of coronary arteries (AOCA) (p=0.009) were more frequently the causes of SCD in athletes while aortic dissection (0.022) was the cause in non-athletes. HCM (p=0.01) and AOCA (p=0.004) were more frequently the causes of SCD in the US while ACM (p=0.001), structurally normal heart (p=0.02), and channelopathies (p=0.02) were more frequent in Europe.Among the causes of SCD, NILVS was the more frequent cause in athletes, while CAD, ACM and channelopathies were more frequent causes in non-athletes. The causes of SCD differ between the US and Europe.

Introduction: Containment measures were established to flatten the curve of COVID-19 contagion in order to avoid a crash of the healthcare system. However, these measures influenced the rate of hospitalization of cardiac patients. In this study, we aimed to analyse the impact of COVID-19 and the effects of lockdown measures on hospital admissions and alerts of emergency medical system (EMS) for cardiac causes in the Tuscany region.Methods: An observational, retrospective analysis from Italian Tuscany region was conducted. We evaluated consecutive patients contacting EMS or admitted to the 39 Emergency Departments (EDs) in Tuscany for cardiac causes in the first trimester of 2020. Data were compared with the same period in 2018/19.Results: The alerts of EMS for cardiac causes significantly decrease in 2020 and the highest difference between 2018/19 and 2020 was found immediately after national lockdown (Δ = −47.4%, p < 0.001). The number of admissions for chest pain in the EDs also decreased, with a maximum difference of −67.6% (p < 0.001) vs. 2018/19. The number of hospital accesses for acute coronary syndromes, atrial fibrillation, and heart failure in the EDs significantly decreased in 2020 as compared to 2018/19 (maximum Δ = −58.9%, p < 0.001; maximum Δ = −63.0%, p < 0.001; maximum Δ = −72.7%, p < 0.001, respectively).Conclusions: A significant decrease in the contacts to EMS for cardiac causes and in cardiac diagnoses was observed during the first trimester of 2020. Fear of contagion has likely played a relevant role. The lesson learnt from first wave of COVID-19 pandemic suggests that appropriate public information strategies and re-education of people are essential.