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Background: Data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey are freely available and can be analyzed to produce hypertension statistics for the noninstitutionalized US population. The analysis of these data requires statistical programming expertise and knowledge of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey methodology. Methods: We developed a web-based application that provides hypertension statistics for US adults using 10 cycles of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, 1999 to 2000 through 2017 to 2020. We validated the application by reproducing results from prior publications. The application’s interface allows users to estimate crude and age-adjusted means, quantiles, and proportions. Population counts can also be estimated. To demonstrate the application’s capabilities, we estimated hypertension statistics for noninstitutionalized US adults. Results: The estimated mean systolic blood pressure (BP) declined from 123 mm Hg in 1999 to 2000 to 120 mm Hg in 2009 to 2010 and increased to 123 mm Hg in 2017 to 2020. The age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension (ie, systolic BP≥130 mm Hg, diastolic BP≥80 mm Hg or self-reported antihypertensive medication use) was 47.9% in 1999 to 2000, 43.0% in 2009 to 2010, and 44.7% in 2017 to 2020. In 2017 to 2020, an estimated 115.3 million US adults had hypertension. The age-adjusted prevalence of controlled BP, defined by the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association BP guideline, among nonpregnant US adults with hypertension was 9.7% in 1999 to 2000, 25.0% in 2013 to 2014, and 21.9% in 2017 to 2020. After age adjustment and among nonpregnant US adults who self-reported taking antihypertensive medication, 27.5%, 48.5%, and 43.0% had controlled BP in 1999 to 2000, 2013 to 2014, and 2017 to 2020, respectively. Conclusions: The application developed in the current study is publicly available at https://bcjaeger.shinyapps.io/nhanesShinyBP/ and produced valid, transparent and reproducible results.

Background High rates of hypertension and poverty in the rural south contribute to health disparities with Black adults experiencing higher rates of cardiovascular disease than White adults, underscoring the need to identify prevention strategies. Methods The equity in prevention and progression of hypertension by addressing barriers to nutrition and physical activity (EPIPHANY) study is a cluster randomized controlled trial testing a multilevel intervention to reduce barriers to a healthy lifestyle to lower blood pressure (BP) among rural, Black adults. Health education fairs offered to 20 churches in the Alabama Black Belt are being used to screen and enroll adults with elevated BP or stage 1 hypertension (systolic BP 120–139 mmHg and diastolic BP < 90 mmHg) who are not recommended for antihypertensive medication, according to the 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association BP guideline. Participants (n = 240) in churches randomized to the control condition are offered access to online resources including cooking and exercise classes. Participants (n = 240) in churches randomized to the intervention are receiving access to online resources; telephone-based peer support for lifestyle modification; funding for churches to develop programs to address food access and/or barriers to physical activity; and training of church members to serve as church champions to deliver training for church members on lifestyle modification. We will employ a Type 1 hybrid implementation-effectiveness design to assess effectiveness and implementation. Conclusions The EPIPHANY study is designed to prevent hypertension among rural, Black adults by addressing structural and individual barriers to lifestyle modification through peer support.

Background: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data indicate that the proportion of US adults with hypertension that had controlled blood pressure (BP) declined from 2013 to 2014 through 2017 to 2018. We analyzed data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009 to 2012, 2013 to 2016, and 2017 to 2020 to confirm this finding. Methods: Hypertension was defined as systolic BP ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥90 mm Hg or antihypertensive medication use. BP control among those with hypertension was defined as systolic BP Results: The age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension was 31.5% (95% CI, 30.3%–32.8%), 32.0% (95% CI, 30.6%–33.3%), and 32.9% (95% CI, 31.0%–34.7%) in 2009 to 2012, 2013 to 2016, and 2017 to 2020, respectively ( P trend=0.218). The age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension increased among non-Hispanic Asian adults from 27.0% in 2011 to 2012 to 33.5% in 2017 to 2020 ( P trend=0.003). Among Hispanic adults, the age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension increased from 29.4% in 2009 to 2012 to 33.2% in 2017 to 2020 ( P trend=0.029). In 2009 to 2012, 2013 to 2016, and 2017 to 2020, 52.8% (95% CI, 50.0%–55.7%), 51.3% (95% CI, 47.9%–54.6%), and 48.2% (95% CI, 45.7%–50.8%) of US adults with hypertension had controlled BP ( P trend=0.034). Among US adults taking antihypertensive medication, 69.9% (95% CI, 67.8%–72.0%), 69.3% (95% CI, 66.6%–71.9%), and 67.7% (95% CI, 65.2%–70.3%) had controlled BP in 2009 to 2012, 2013 to 2016, and 2017 to 2020, respectively ( P trend=0.189). Among all US adults with hypertension and those taking antihypertensive medication, a decline in BP control between 2009 to 2012 and 2017 to 2020 occurred among those ≥75 years, women, and non-Hispanic black adults. Conclusions: These data confirm that the proportion of US adults with hypertension who have controlled BP has declined.

BACKGROUND: Determining the contribution of social determinants of health (SDOH) to the higher proportion of Black adults with uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) could inform interventions to improve BP control and reduce cardiovascular disease. METHODS: We analyzed data from 7306 White and 7497 Black US adults taking antihypertensive medication from the REGARDS (Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke) study (2003–2007). SDOH were defined using the Healthy People 2030 domains of education, economic stability, social context, neighborhood environment, and health care access. Uncontrolled BP was defined as systolic BP ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥90 mm Hg. RESULTS: Among participants taking antihypertensive medication, 25.4% of White and 33.7% of Black participants had uncontrolled BP. The SDOH included in the current analysis mediated the Black-White difference in uncontrolled BP by 33.0% (95% CI, 22.1%–46.8%). SDOH that contributed to excess uncontrolled BP among Black compared with White adults included low annual household income (percent-mediated 15.8% [95% CI, 10.8%–22.8%]), low education (10.5% [5.6%–15.4%]), living in a health professional shortage area (10.4% [6.5%–14.7%]), disadvantaged neighborhood (11.0% [4.4%–18.0%]), and high-poverty zip code (9.7% [3.8%–15.5%]). Together, the neighborhood-domain accounted for 14.1% (95% CI, 5.9%–22.9%), the health care domain accounted for 12.7% (95% CI, 8.4%–17.3%), and the social-context-domain accounted for 3.8% (95% CI, 1.2%–6.6%) of the excess likelihood of uncontrolled BP among Black compared with White adults, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: SDOH including low education, low income, living in a health professional shortage area, disadvantaged neighborhood, and high-poverty zip code contributed to the excess likelihood of uncontrolled BP among Black compared with White adults.

OBJECTIVES: Less than half of US adults with hypertension have controlled blood pressure (BP). Higher body mass index (BMI) is associated with an increased risk for hypertension, but the association between BMI and BP control is not well characterized. We examined hypertension awareness, antihypertensive medication use, and BP control, by BMI category. METHODS: Data for 3,568 US adults aged ≥18 years with hypertension (BP ≥140/90 mmHg or taking antihypertensive medication) from the 2015–2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were analyzed. BMI was categorized as normal (

Introduction: High rates of hypertension and poverty in the rural South contribute to health disparities with Black adults experiencing higher rates of cardiovascular disease than White adults. Clinical trials have shown that lifestyle interventions like the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet and increasing physical activity reduce the risk for hypertension. However, suboptimal implementation indicates a need to identify mechanisms of prevention in rural populations impacted by negative social determinants of health that can make achieving healthy lifestyle behaviors more challenging. Methods and Results: The EPIPHANY (Equity in Prevention and Progression of Hypertension by Addressing barriers to Nutrition and Physical activitY) Study is a cluster randomized controlled trial testing a multilevel intervention designed to reduce community and individual barriers to a healthy lifestyle to lower blood pressure (BP) among rural, Black adults. EPIPHANY is enrolling and randomizing 20 churches in the Black Belt region of Alabama. Health education fairs offered to all churches are being used to screen and enroll Black adults with elevated BP or stage 1 hypertension (120-139 mm Hg and diastolic BP Conclusion: The EPIPHANY study is designed to prevent hypertension among rural, Black adults by addressing structural and individual barriers to lifestyle modification through peer support. The study could provide evidence for a feasible, scalable and sustainable approach to preventing hypertension in rural, underserved communities.

Background: Chronic stress experienced at home or work has been associated with acute increases in blood pressure (BP) measured in the doctor’s office, but few data are available on the association of chronic stress with BP measured outside of the office setting. Methods: We analyzed data from 473 African-American adults enrolled in the Jackson Heart Study with office BP < 130/80 mm Hg to examine the association between chronic stress and masked hypertension (MHT). Chronic stress related to jobs, relationships, neighborhoods, caregiving, legal problems, medical problems, racism and discrimination, and meeting basic needs experienced over the previous 12 months was assessed using the 8-item Global Perceived Stress Scale (GPSS). We grouped participants by tertile of the composite GPSS score. Any MHT was defined as awake BP ≥ 130/80 mm Hg, asleep BP ≥ 110/65 mm Hg, or 24-hour BP ≥ 125/75 mm Hg. Analyses were stratified by antihypertensive medication use. Results: Among participants not taking antihypertensive medication (mean age 53 years), the prevalence of any MHT was 59.0%, 75.0% and 61.8% for the low (GPSS score ≤ 3), middle (GPSS score 4 - 6), and upper tertiles of the GPSS score (GPSS score > 6), respectively. Among those taking antihypertensive medication (mean age 61 years), the prevalence of any MHT was 77.4%, 80.7%, and 77.9% for participants in the low, middle, and upper tertile of the GPSS score, respectively. After multivariable adjustment, the prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval) for any MHT associated with the middle and upper versus low tertile of the GPSS score was 1.23 (0.96, 1.57) and 1.07 (0.83, 1.39), respectively, among those not taking antihypertensive medication and 0.97 (0.82, 1.14) and 1.02 (0.85, 1.21), respectively, among those taking antihypertensive medication (Table). Conclusion: No association was present between chronic stress and MHT among African Americans in the Jackson Heart Study.

Background: Identifying social determinants of health (SDOH) associated with incident apparent treatment resistant hypertension (aTRH) may guide interventions to reduce the incidence of aTRH and its associated cardiovascular disease risk. Methods: We analyzed data from 2,769 White and 2,254 Black US adults from the REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke study taking antihypertensive medication with controlled blood pressure (BP) at baseline to estimate the association of SDOH with incident aTRH. SDOH were guided by the Healthy People 2030 domains of education, economic stability, social context, neighborhood environment and healthcare access. Incident aTRH was defined as systolic BP ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥90 mm Hg, systolic BP ≥130 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥80 mm Hg for those with diabetes or chronic kidney disease, while taking ≥3 classes of antihypertensive medication or taking ≥4 classes of antihypertensive medication regardless of BP level, at a follow-up visit. Results: Over a median 9.5 years of follow-up, 16.1% of White versus 23.7% of Black adults developed aTRH. After age and sex adjustment, the SDOH associated with incident aTRH (hazard ratio; 95% CI) included having less than a high school education (1.51; 1.22 - 1.87), being a high school graduate (1.30; 1.10 - 1.53), and attending some college (1.29; 1.10 - 1.52) versus college graduate; annual household income Conclusion: SDOH were associated with transitioning from controlled BP to incident aTRH among White and Black adults.

Background: Most adults with hypertension have other chronic conditions. As obesity and diabetes are increasing among US adults, the prevalence of multimorbidity may have increased among US adults with hypertension. Methods: We used data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to assess the trend in multimorbidity among US adults (ages ≥ 20 years) with (n = 24,646) and without (n = 24,189) hypertension from 1999-2000 through 2017-March 2020. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥130 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mm Hg, or use of antihypertensive medication. Multimorbidity was defined as the co-occurrence of ≥ 3 chronic conditions, not including hypertension. Chronic conditions were selected based on a framework from a US Health and Human Services report and data available in NHANES and included dyslipidemia, coronary heart disease, stroke, heart failure, diabetes, obesity, liver fibrosis, chronic kidney disease, asthma, lung disease (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, emphysema, or chronic bronchitis), arthritis, hepatitis-C, cancer, and depression. Results: From 1999-2000 to 2017-2020, the age-adjusted mean number of chronic conditions increased from 2.4 to 3.0 among US adults with hypertension and from 1.9 to 2.2 among US adults without hypertension (Figure, top panel). During this period, the age-adjusted prevalence of multimorbidity increased from 42% to 56% among US adults with hypertension and from 32% to 34% among US adults without hypertension (Figure, bottom panel). In 2017-2020, after age, race/ethnicity, and sex adjustment, the mean difference in the number of chronic conditions among US adults with versus without hypertension was 0.70 (95% CI: 0.56 - 0.84). Multimorbidity was 1.50 (95% CI: 1.34 - 1.68) times more common among US adults with versus without hypertension. Conclusion: Multimorbidity has increased among US adults, and its prevalence is higher among adults with versus without hypertension.

Background The 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association blood pressure (BP) guideline recommends using 10-year predicted atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk to guide decisions to initiate antihypertensive medication. Methods We included adults aged 40-79 years from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2018 (n = 8803). We computed 10-year predicted ASCVD risk using the Pooled Cohort risk equations. Clinical CVD was self-reported. Analyses were conducted overall and among those with stage 1 hypertension, defined by a mean SBP of 130-139 mmHg or DBP of 80-89 mmHg. In subgroups defined by diabetes, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and age at least 65 years, we estimated the proportion of United States adults with high ASCVD risk (i.e. 10-year predicted ASCVD risk ≥10% or clinical CVD) and estimated age-adjusted probability of having high ASCVD risk. Results Among United States adults, an estimated 72.3, 64.5, and 83.9 of those with diabetes, CKD, and age at least 65 years had high ASCVD risk, respectively. Among United States adults with stage 1 hypertension, an estimated 55, 36.7, and 72.6% of those with diabetes, CKD, and age at least 65 years had high ASCVD risk, respectively. The probability of having high ASCVD risk increased with age and exceeded 50% for United States adults with diabetes and CKD at ages 52 and 57 years, respectively. For those with stage 1 hypertension, these ages were 55 and 64 years, respectively. Conclusion Most United States adults with diabetes, CKD, or age at least 65 years had high ASCVD risk. However, many with stage 1 hypertension did not.

Experiences of child maltreatment are associated with cardiovascular risk and disease in adulthood; however, the mechanisms underlying these associations are poorly understood.We examined associations between retrospectively self-reported exposure to child maltreatment (Early Trauma Inventory Self-Report Short Form) and inflammatory responses to mental stress among adults (mean age = 50 years) who recently had a myocardial infarction ( n = 227). Inflammation was assessed as blood interleukin-6 (IL-6), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 concentrations, measured before and after a standardized public speaking stress task. We used mixed linear regression models adjusting for cardiovascular disease severity, medication usage, and psychosocial, demographic, and life-style factors.In women, increases in IL-6 levels and MMP-9 levels with stress were smaller in those exposed to sexual abuse, relative to those unexposed (IL-6 geometric mean increases = 1.6 [95% confidence interval {CI} = 1.4-1.9] pg/ml versus 2.1 [95% CI = 1.8-2.4] pg/ml; MMP-9 geometric mean increases = 1.0 [95% CI = 0.9-1.2] ng/ml versus 1.2 [95% CI = 1.1-1.4] ng/ml). No differences were noted for emotional or physical abuse. By contrast in men, individuals exposed to sexual abuse had larger IL-6 responses than those not exposed to abuse.These findings suggest sex differences in stress response among survivors of a myocardial infarction exposed to abuse early in life. They also underscore the importance of examining sex as an effect modifier of relationships between exposure to early life adversity and inflammatory responses to mental stressors in midlife.

Although mean blood pressure (BP) increases with age, there may be a subset of individuals whose BP does not increase with age. Characterizing the population that maintains normal BP could inform hypertension prevention efforts. We determined the proportion of Jackson Heart Study participants that maintained normal BP at 3 visits over a median of 8 years. Normal BP was defined as systolic BP

Elevated blood pressure (BP) and hypertension commonly occur in children and adolescents and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease in adulthood. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent research in pediatric hypertension including changes in defining hypertension, BP measurement techniques, hypertension epidemiology, risk factors, treatment, and BP-related target organ damage. Defining pediatric hypertension using the 2017 American Academy of Pediatrics’ updated Clinical Practice Guideline resulted in a larger proportion of children being classified as having elevated BP or hypertension compared with prior guidelines. Trends in the distribution of BP among US children and adolescents suggest that BP levels and the prevalence of hypertension may have increased from 2011–2014 to 2015–2018. Factors including a family history of hypertension, obesity, minority race/ethnicity, physical inactivity, high dietary intake of sodium, and poor sleep quality are associated with an increased prevalence of elevated BP and hypertension. Evidence of a linear relationship between systolic BP and target organ damage indicates that BP levels currently considered normal could increase the risk of target organ damage in childhood. Lifestyle changes, such as adhering to the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet, are a central component of effectively reducing BP and have been shown to reduce target organ damage. Pharmacologic treatment using angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers is an effective and safe method for reducing BP among children with uncontrolled BP after implementing lifestyle changes. Research gaps in the prevention, detection, classification, and treatment of hypertension in children demonstrate opportunities for future study.

Background: Hypertension and uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) are the largest contributors to racial disparities in life expectancy. Determining the contribution of social determinants of health (SDOH) to racial differences in uncontrolled BP could help identify ways to achieve the American Heart Association’s 2030 impact goal of equitably improving healthy life expectancy. Methods: We analyzed data from 7,497 Black and 7,306 White US adults taking antihypertensive medication from the REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke study to determine the association between SDOH and uncontrolled BP. SDOH were defined using the Healthy People 2030 domains of education, economic stability, social context, neighborhood environment and healthcare access. Uncontrolled BP was defined as systolic BP ≥130 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥80 mm Hg. Results: Among participants taking antihypertensive medication (mean age 66.3 years, 50.7% Black, 57.1% female), 68.0% of Black and 59.0% of White participants had uncontrolled BP. After multivariable adjustment, uncontrolled BP (prevalence ratio; 95% CI) was more common among those with less than a high school education (1.06; 1.02 – 1.09), annual household income Conclusion: SDOH were associated with uncontrolled BP among both Black and White adults taking antihypertensive medication.

Background Maintaining blood pressure (BP) control over time may contribute to lower risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) among individuals who are taking antihypertensive medication. Methods The Jackson Heart Study (JHS) enrolled 5,306 African-American adults ≥21 years of age and was used to determine the proportion of African Americans that maintain persistent BP control, identify factors associated with persistent BP control, and determine the association of persistent BP control with CVD events. This analysis included 1,604 participants who were taking antihypertensive medication at Visit 1 and had BP data at Visits 1 (2000–2004), 2 (2005–2008), and 3 (2009–2013). Persistent BP control was defined as systolic BP Results At Visit 1, 1,226 of 1,604 participants (76.4%) with hypertension had controlled BP. Overall, 48.9% of participants taking antihypertensive medication at Visit 1 had persistent BP control. After multivariable adjustment for demographic, socioeconomic, clinical, behavioral, and psychosocial factors, and access-to-care, participants were more likely to have persistent BP control if they were Conclusion Less than half of JHS participants taking antihypertensive medication had persistent BP control, putting them at increased risk for heart failure.

Purpose This paper determined sodium provisions from a seven-day cycle menu and commissary at a rural Southwest County jail and compared it to Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) recommendations for sodium. Design/methodology/approach A seven-day cycle menu and commissary items were used to determine sodium content for each meal and commissary pack. Estimates for the menu and commissary packs paired with the menu (commissary scenarios) were converted to a daily average of sodium and compared to DRI and DASH recommendations. Findings Menu provisions provided 167% of daily DRI sodium recommendations and 256% of daily DASH sodium recommendations. The sodium content for individual commissary scenarios averaged 218% of DRI and 334% of DASH recommendations. Commissary items are notably high in sodium and if eaten can significantly exceed dietary recommendations. Originality/value Small changes to one meal within the cycle menu and the inclusion of fresh or frozen produce could reduce sodium content to align with DRI and DASH recommendations.

The authors examined the proportion of US adults that would have their high blood pressure (BP) status changed if systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) were measured with systematic bias and/or random error versus following a standardized protocol. Data from the 2017-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; n = 5176) were analyzed. BP was measured up to three times using a mercury sphygmomanometer by a trained physician following a standardized protocol and averaged. High BP was defined as SBP ≥130 mm Hg or DBP ≥80 mm Hg. Among US adults not taking antihypertensive medication, 32.0% (95%CI: 29.6%,34.4%) had high BP. If SBP and DBP were measured with systematic bias, 5 mm Hg for SBP and 3.5 mm Hg for DBP higher and lower than in NHANES, the proportion with high BP was estimated to be 44.4% (95%CI: 42.6%,46.2%) and 21.9% (95%CI 19.5%,24.4%). Among US adults taking antihypertensive medication, 60.6% (95%CI: 57.2%,63.9%) had high BP. If SBP and DBP were measured 5 and 3.5 mm Hg higher and lower than in NHANES, the proportion with high BP was estimated to be 71.8% (95%CI: 68.3%,75.0%) and 48.4% (95%CI: 44.6%,52.2%), respectively. If BP was measured with random error, with standard deviations of 15 mm Hg for SBP and 7 mm Hg for DBP, 21.4% (95%CI: 19.8%,23.0%) of US adults not taking antihypertensive medication and 20.5% (95%CI: 17.7%,23.3%) taking antihypertensive medication had their high BP status re-categorized. In conclusions, measuring BP with systematic or random errors may result in the misclassification of high BP for a substantial proportion of US adults.

Racial and ethnic differences in blood pressure (BP), regardless of antihypertensive medication use, contribute to cardiovascular disease disparities. We analyzed systolic BP (SBP) data from US adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 1999 to 2002 through 2015 to 2018 (n=51 743) to determine if racial and ethnicity disparities have changed over time. Among US adults not taking antihypertensive medication, the mean age-adjusted SBP (95% CI), mm Hg, in 1999 to 2002 and 2015 to 2018 was 119.6 (118.7–120.5) and 119.4 (118.7–120.1) for non-Hispanic White adults, 124.7 (123.7–125.7) and 124.9 (123.8–125.9) for non-Hispanic Black adults and 120.4 (118.6–122.2) and 120.4 (119.7–121.2) for Hispanic adults. The mean multivariable-adjusted SBP was 4.1 mm Hg (2.7–5.4) higher in 1999 to 2002 and 3.8 mm Hg (2.6–5.0) higher in 2015 to 2018 among non-Hispanic Black adults compared with non-Hispanic White adults, while there was no evidence of a difference between Hispanic adults and non-Hispanic White adults in 1999 to 2002 (−0.2 mm Hg [95% CI, −1.9 to 1.5]) or 2015 to 2018 (−0.8 mm Hg [95% CI, −1.8 to 0.1]). Among US adults taking antihypertensive medication, the mean age-adjusted SBP (95% CI), mm Hg, in 1999 to 2002 and 2015 to 2018 was 129.6 (126.7–132.4) and 127.1 (125.6–128.6) for non-Hispanic White adults, 136.9 (133.8–140.0) and 135.3 (132.5–138.1) for non-Hispanic Black adults and 133.9 (128.0–139.7) and 131.8 (127.6–136.0) for Hispanic adults. After multivariable adjustment, in 1999 to 2002 and 2015 to 2018, mean SBP was 4.8 mm Hg (1.8–7.8) and 6.5 mm Hg (4.5–8.4) higher, respectively, among non-Hispanic Black adults versus White adults, and 2.4 mm Hg (−2.6 to 7.3) and 3.6 mm Hg (0.8 to 6.4) higher, respectively, among Hispanic adults versus non-Hispanic White adults. In the United States, non-Hispanic Black adults continue to have higher SBP levels compared with non-Hispanic White adults.

Identifying subgroups of the population with different reasons for uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) can inform where to direct interventions to increase hypertension control. We determined characteristics associated with not being aware of having hypertension and being aware but not treated with antihypertensive medication among US adults with uncontrolled BP using the 2015 to 2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (N=2282). Among US adults with uncontrolled BP, systolic BP ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥90 mm Hg, 38.0% were not aware they had hypertension, 15.6% were aware but not treated and 46.4% were aware and treated with antihypertensive medication. After multivariable adjustment, US adults who were 18-39 versus ≥70 years old were more likely (prevalence ratio, 1.49 [95% CI, 1.11–1.99]) and those who had a health care visit in the past year were less likely (prevalence ratio, 0.61 [95% CI, 0.48–0.77]) to be unaware they had hypertension. Among US adults with uncontrolled BP who were aware they had hypertension, those 18 to 39, 40 to 49, 50 to 59, and 60 to 69 versus ≥70 years old were more likely to not be treated versus being treated with antihypertensive medication. Not being treated with antihypertensive medication versus being treated and having uncontrolled BP was less common among those with versus without a usual source of health care (prevalence ratio, 0.69 [95% CI, 0.51–0.94]) and who reported having versus not having a health care visit in past year (prevalence ratio, 0.46 [95% CI, 0.35–0.61]). In conclusion, to increase BP control, interventions should be directed towards populations in which hypertension awareness is low and uncontrolled BP is common despite antihypertensive medication use.

Background Not having a healthcare visit in the past year has been associated with a higher likelihood of uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) among individuals with hypertension. Methods We examined factors associated with not having a healthcare visit in the past year among US adults with hypertension using data from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2018 (n = 5,985). Hypertension was defined as systolic BP (SBP) ≥140 mm Hg, diastolic BP (DBP) ≥90 mm Hg, or antihypertensive medication use. Having a healthcare visit in the past year was self-reported. Results Overall, 7.0% of US adults with hypertension reported not having a healthcare visit in the past year. Those without vs. with a healthcare visit in the past year were less likely to be aware they had hypertension (45.0% vs. 83.9%), to be taking antihypertensive medication (36.7% vs. 91.4%, among those who were aware they had hypertension), and to have controlled BP (SBP/DBP Conclusions Interventions should be considered to ensure all adults with hypertension have annual healthcare visits.

Importance Office blood pressure (BP) measurements are not the most accurate method to diagnose hypertension. Home BP monitoring (HBPM) and 24-hour ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) are out-of-office alternatives, and ABPM is considered the reference standard for BP assessment. Objective To systematically review the accuracy of oscillometric office and home BP measurement methods for correctly classifying adults as having hypertension, defined using ABPM. Data Sources PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, ClinicalTrials.gov, and DARE databases and the American Heart Association website (from inception to April 2021) were searched, along with reference lists from retrieved articles. Data Extraction and Synthesis Two authors independently abstracted raw data and assessed methodological quality. A third author resolved disputes as needed. Main Outcomes and Measures Random effects summary sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios (LRs) were calculated for BP measurement methods for the diagnosis of hypertension. ABPM (24-hour mean BP ≥130/80 mm Hg or mean BP while awake ≥135/85 mm Hg) was considered the reference standard. Results A total of 12 cross-sectional studies (n = 6877) that compared conventional oscillometric office BP measurements to mean BP during 24-hour ABPM and 6 studies (n = 2049) that compared mean BP on HBPM to mean BP during 24-hour ABPM were included (range, 117-2209 participants per analysis); 2 of these studies (n = 3040) used consecutive samples. The overall prevalence of hypertension identified by 24-hour ABPM was 49% (95% CI, 39%-60%) in the pooled studies that evaluated office measures and 54% (95% CI, 39%-69%) in studies that evaluated HBPM. All included studies assessed sensitivity and specificity at the office BP threshold of 140/90 mm Hg and the home BP threshold of 135/85 mm Hg. Conventional office oscillometric measurement (1-5 measurements in a single visit with BP ≥140/90 mm Hg) had a sensitivity of 51% (95% CI, 36%-67%), specificity of 88% (95% CI, 80%-96%), positive LR of 4.2 (95% CI, 2.5-6.0), and negative LR of 0.56 (95% CI, 0.42-0.69). Mean BP with HBPM (with BP ≥135/85 mm Hg) had a sensitivity of 75% (95% CI, 65%-86%), specificity of 76% (95% CI, 65%-86%), positive LR of 3.1 (95% CI, 2.2-4.0), and negative LR of 0.33 (95% CI, 0.20-0.47). Two studies (1 with a consecutive sample) that compared unattended automated mean office BP (with BP ≥135/85 mm Hg) with 24-hour ABPM had sensitivity ranging from 48% to 51% and specificity ranging from 80% to 91%. One study that compared attended automated mean office BP (with BP ≥140/90 mm Hg) with 24-hour ABPM had a sensitivity of 87.6% (95% CI, 83%-92%) and specificity of 24.1% (95% CI, 16%-32%). Conclusions and Relevance Office measurements of BP may not be accurate enough to rule in or rule out hypertension; HBPM may be helpful to confirm a diagnosis. When there is uncertainty around threshold values or when office and HBPM are not in agreement, 24-hour ABPM should be considered to establish the diagnosis.

Background The mean systolic blood pressure (SBP) for US adults increases with age. Determining characteristics of US adults ≥65 years with normal blood pressure (BP) may inform approaches to prevent this increase. Methods We analyzed US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2018 data (n = 21,581). BP was measured up to 3 times and averaged. Normal BP was defined as SBP Results The prevalence of normal BP was 57.8%, 25.3%, 11.2%, and 5.0% among US adults who were 18–44, 45–64, 65–74, and ≥75 years, respectively. After multivariable adjustment, in US adults ≥65 years of age, normal BP vs. elevated BP/hypertension was more common among those with moderate and no vs. heavy alcohol consumption (prevalence ratio [PR] 3.03; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.25–7.36 and 2.53; 95% CI 0.96–6.65, respectively), ≥150 vs. Conclusions Among US adults ≥65 years, normal BP was associated with healthy lifestyle factors and a lower prevalence of adverse health conditions.

IntroductionFor many people, blood pressure (BP) levels differ when measured in a medical office versus outside of the office setting. Out-of-office BP has a stronger association with cardiovascular disease (CVD) events compared with BP measured in the office. Many BP guidelines recommend measuring BP outside of the office to confirm the levels obtained in the office. Ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) can assess out-of-office BP but is not available in many US practices and some individuals find it uncomfortable. The aims of the Better BP Study are to (1) test if unattended office BP is closer to awake BP on ABPM compared with attended office BP, (2) assess if sleep BP assessed by home BP monitoring (HBPM) agrees with sleep BP from a full night of ABPM and (3) compare the strengths of associations of unattended versus attended office BP, unattended office BP versus awake BP on ABPM and sleep BP on HBPM versus ABPM with markers of end-organ damage.Methods and analysisWe are recruiting 630 adults not taking antihypertensive medication in Birmingham, Alabama, and New York, New York. Participants are having their office BP measured with (attended) and without (unattended) a technician present, in random order, using an automated oscillometric office BP device during each of two visits within one week. Following these visits, participants complete 24 hours of ABPM and one night of HBPM, in random order. Psychosocial factors, anthropometrics, left ventricular mass index and albumin-to-creatinine ratio are also being assessed.Ethics and disseminationThis study was approved by the University of Alabama at Birmingham and the Columbia University Medical Center Institutional Review Boards. The study results will be disseminated at scientific conferences and published in peer-reviewed journals.Trial registration numberNCT04307004.

Introduction: Cross-sectional studies have reported the proportion of African-American adults with controlled blood pressure (BP) at a single time point, but few data are available on the proportion that maintains controlled BP over time and the extent to which it is associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Methods: We analyzed data from 1,414 African-American Jackson Heart Study (JHS) participants taking antihypertensive medication to estimate the proportion with persistent BP control, defined by having controlled BP at the three JHS visits, conducted over a median of 8 years. At each visit, BP control was defined as systolic BP Results: At baseline, 76.5% (n=1,081) of participants had controlled BP, among which 64.4% (n=696) had persistent BP control. Overall, 49.2% (n=696) of participants had persistent BP control. After adjustment for sex, participants ≥65 compared with Table ). Conclusions: Less than half of JHS participants taking antihypertensive medication had persistent BP control, putting them at increased risk for CVD, particularly HF.

Introduction: The proportion of US adults with hypertension who had controlled blood pressure (BP) decreased from 2013-2018. The rising prevalence of obesity has been implicated as a reason for this decline. We investigated trends in BP control from 2013-2018 among US adults with hypertension, overall and among those taking antihypertensive medication, by body mass index (BMI) category. Methods: We used National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data from 2013-2014, 2015-2016, and 2017-2018 for US adults aged ≥18 with hypertension (N=5,580). We examined the BMI distribution [normal (BMI 2 ), overweight (BMI 25-2 ), class 1 obesity (BMI 30-2 ), class 2 or 3 obesity (BMI ≥35 kg/m 2 )] in each survey cycle. We calculated the age-adjusted prevalence of BP control ( Results: The prevalence of overweight and obesity among US adults with hypertension did not change from 2013-2018 ( Table ). The overall proportion of adults with hypertension who had controlled BP was higher among those with overweight or obesity than those with normal BMI. BP control among those taking antihypertensive medication was similar among those with overweight or obesity and those with normal BMI. BP control overall decreased over time with no evidence of a difference by BMI category. Among those taking antihypertensive medication, BP control decreased in those who were overweight or had class 1 obesity but not in those with normal BMI or class 2 or 3 obesity. Conclusions: Among US adults with hypertension, there was no increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity from 2013-2018 and BP control decreased in all subgroups. These findings suggest the obesity epidemic is not driving the decrease in BP control in the US population.

Introduction: In October 2020, the US Surgeon General issued a Call to Action on hypertension control. We investigated the contribution of lack of awareness, not taking antihypertensive medication and an inadequate antihypertensive medication regimen to uncontrolled blood pressure (BP) among US adults. Methods: We analyzed data for 2,282 participants ≥18 years of age with uncontrolled BP from the 2015-2016 and 2017-2018 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). BP was measured three times by a trained physician following a standardized protocol. Uncontrolled BP was defined by systolic BP ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥90 mm Hg. Being aware of having hypertension and antihypertensive medication use were defined by self-report. An inadequate antihypertensive medication regimen was defined as taking antihypertensive medication with uncontrolled BP. Data were weighted to represent the non-institutionalized US population. Results: Among US adults with uncontrolled BP, 34.8% were not aware they had hypertension, 13.8% were aware but not taking antihypertensive medication and 51.4% were aware but taking inadequate antihypertensive medication regimen. US adults 18-39 and 40-49 years of age were more likely to be unaware they had hypertension compared to their counterparts ≥70 years of age (multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratios [PR]: 1.62 [95% CI: 1.26-2.07] and 1.41 [95% CI: 1.02-1.95], respectively). Participants who had a healthcare visit in the past year (PR: 0.60 [95% CI: 0.47-0.77]) and who were obese (PR: 0.69 [95% CI: 0.56-0.85]), had diabetes (PR: 0.56 [95% CI: 0.42-0.76]), chronic kidney disease (PR: 0.59 [95% CI: 0.46-0.75]) and a history of cardiovascular disease (PR: 0.41 [95% CI: 0.27-0.61]) were less likely to be unaware they had hypertension. Among those who were aware they had hypertension, US adults who were 18-39 and 40-49 years of age as compared to those ≥70 years of age were more likely to be not taking antihypertensive medication versus taking inadequate antihypertensive medication regimen (multivariable-adjusted PR: 5.48 [95% CI: 3.17-9.48] and 5.14 [95% CI: 2.28-10.26], respectively). In contrast, non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics as compared to non-Hispanic whites (PR: 0.71 [95% CI: 0.53-0.94] and 0.72 [95% CI: 0.54-0.96], respectively) and those without a usual place to receive healthcare (PR: 0.70 [95% CI 0.51-0.96]) and who had a healthcare visit in past year (PR: 0.47 [95% CI: 0.35-0.62]) were less likely to be not taking antihypertensive medication versus taking inadequate antihypertensive medication regimen. Conclusion: The majority of US adults with uncontrolled BP were either unaware they had hypertension or were taking an inadequate antihypertensive medication regimen. Interventions are needed to increase hypertension awareness and assess and titrate patients’ antihypertensive medication regimen.

Introduction: Incarcerated populations experience nearly two times the risk of Hypertension (HT) and Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) relative to the general population. Incarcerated individuals lack the autonomy to make dietary changes to attenuate these risks. Dietary intake of sodium is considered the most critical and modifiable nutritional determinant to developing HT and CVD. The American Heart Association recommends the cardioprotective Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet which restricts sodium intake to 1500 mg per day, 800 mg less than the recommended Dietary Reference Intake (DRI). Nutrition in jail is obtained through menu provisions and purchasable packaged food and beverage items from the commissary, yet previous research indicating the high sodium content in jail meals has failed to include commissary items in total sodium intake. Hypothesis: We hypothesized that estimated daily sodium in a 7 day cycle menu and commissary items at a county jail exceed DRI and DASH diet recommendations. Methods: A 7 day cycle menu and commissary food list were obtained from a southwest rural county jail, which included 3 daily meals. Commissary items included 4 purchasable, pre-bundled food snack packs. NutriCalc Dietary Analysis software was used to determine sodium content for each meal, and commissary snack pack. Total sodium from the 7 day menu was divided by the number of days (7) to determine a daily average. For snack pack analyses, sodium of each of the 4 snack packs was added to the 7 day menu provisions and divided by 7, individually. All estimates were compared to DRI and DASH recommendations. Results: The sodium content from the menu and commissary significantly exceeded both DRI and DASH recommendations. The daily average sodium from menu provisions was 167% (3847/2300) of the DRI and 256% (3847/1500) of the DASH diet recommendations. Lunch provisions contributed the largest proportion (45%, 12051/26931) of total weekly sodium. When sodium from commissary snack packs was included with the 7 day cycle menu, daily average sodium content ranged from 173 to 292% [(3971/2300) to ( 6712/2300)] of DRI and 265 to 447% [(3970/1500) to (6712/1500)] of DASH diet recommendations. Conclusions: Small changes to one meal within the cycle menu and the inclusion of fresh or frozen produce could reduce sodium content to align with DRI and DASH recommendations. Commissary items make up a substantial portion of dietary sodium intake within jails. The addition of reduced sodium options to commissary snack packs may help limit sodium intake without restricting what little autonomy incarcerated individuals have over their diet. These alterations may help alleviate HT and CVD burden for incarcerated populations.

Background For most individuals, blood pressure (BP) is related to multiple risk factors. By utilizing the decision tree analysis technique, this study aimed to identify the best discriminative risk factors and interactions that are associated with maintaining normal BP over 30 years and to reveal segments of a population with a high probability of maintaining normal BP. Methods Participants from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study aged 18–30 years with normal BP level at baseline visit (Y0, 1985–1986) were included in this study. Results Of 3,156 participants, 1,132 (35.9%) maintained normal BP during the follow-up period and 2,024 (64.1%) developed higher BP. Systolic BP (SBP) within the normal range, race, and body mass index (BMI) were the most discriminative factors between participants who maintained normal BP throughout midlife and those who developed higher BP. Participants with a baseline SBP level ≤92 mm Hg and White women with baseline BMI < 23 kg/m2 were the two segments of the population with the highest probability for maintaining normal BP throughout midlife (69.2% and 59.9%, respectively). Among Black participants aged >26.5 years with BMI > 27 kg/m2, only 5.4% of participants maintained normal BP throughout midlife. Conclusions This study emphasizes the importance of early life factors to later life SBP and support efforts to maintain ideal levels of risk factors for hypertension at young ages. Whether policies to maintain lower BMI and SBP well below the clinical thresholds throughout young adulthood and middle age can reduce later age hypertension should be examined in future studies.

Background The 2017 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association blood pressure (BP) guideline recommends ambulatory BP monitoring to exclude white coat hypertension (WCH) among adults with office systolic BP (SBP)/diastolic BP (DBP) of 130–159/80–99 mm Hg, and masked hypertension (MHT) among adults with office SBP/DBP of 120–129/75–79 mm Hg after a 3-month trial of lifestyle modification. We estimated the proportion of individuals with ideal lifestyle factors among those who meet these office BP criteria. Methods We analyzed data from participants not taking antihypertensive medication in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) and Jackson Heart Study (JHS) who met the office BP criteria for screening for WCH (CARDIA n = 490, JHS n = 873) and MHT (CARDIA n = 486, JHS n = 614). We estimated the prevalence of lifestyle factors including ideal body mass index (BMI), physical activity, diet, and alcohol use among participants who met office BP criteria for WCH or MHT screening. Results Among participants who met office BP criteria for WCH screening, 15.5% in CARDIA and 3.6% in JHS had 3 or more ideal lifestyle factors. Among participants who met office BP criteria for MHT screening, 22.6% in CARDIA and 4.7% in JHS had 3 or more ideal lifestyle factors. Ideal BMI, diet, and physical activity were present in less than half of participants in each sample. Conclusions Few participants who met office BP criteria for the screening of WCH or MHT had ideal lifestyle factors.

Almost 1 in 5 US adults with hypertension has apparent treatment resistant hypertension (aTRH). Identifying modifiable risk factors for incident aTRH may guide interventions to reduce the need for additional antihypertensive medication. We evaluated the association between cardiovascular health and incident aTRH among participants with hypertension and controlled blood pressure (BP) at baseline in the Jackson Heart Study (N=800) and the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke study (N=2316). Body mass index, smoking, physical activity, diet, BP, cholesterol and glucose, categorized as ideal, intermediate, or poor according to the American Heart Association’s Life’s Simple 7 were assessed at baseline and used to define cardiovascular health. Incident aTRH was defined by uncontrolled BP, systolic BP ≥130 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥80 mm Hg, while taking ≥3 classes of antihypertensive medication or controlled BP, systolic BP

Controlling blood pressure (BP) reduces the risk for cardiovascular disease.To determine whether BP control among US adults with hypertension changed from 1999-2000 through 2017-2018.Serial cross-sectional analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data, weighted to be representative of US adults, between 1999-2000 and 2017-2018 (10 cycles), including 18 262 US adults aged 18 years or older with hypertension defined as systolic BP level of 140 mm Hg or higher, diastolic BP level of 90 mm Hg or higher, or use of antihypertensive medication. The date of final data collection was 2018.Calendar year.Mean BP was computed using 3 measurements. The primary outcome of BP control was defined as systolic BP level lower than 140 mm Hg and diastolic BP level lower than 90 mm Hg.Among the 51 761 participants included in this analysis, the mean (SD) age was 48 (19) years and 25 939 (50.1%) were women; 43.2% were non-Hispanic White adults; 21.6%, non-Hispanic Black adults; 5.3%, non-Hispanic Asian adults; and 26.1%, Hispanic adults. Among the 18 262 adults with hypertension, the age-adjusted estimated proportion with controlled BP increased from 31.8% (95% CI, 26.9%-36.7%) in 1999-2000 to 48.5% (95% CI, 45.5%-51.5%) in 2007-2008 (P .001 for trend), remained stable and was 53.8% (95% CI, 48.7%-59.0%) in 2013-2014 (P = .14 for trend), and then declined to 43.7% (95% CI, 40.2%-47.2%) in 2017-2018 (P = .003 for trend). Compared with adults who were aged 18 years to 44 years, it was estimated that controlled BP was more likely among those aged 45 years to 64 years (49.7% vs 36.7%; multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio, 1.18 [95% CI, 1.02-1.37]) and less likely among those aged 75 years or older (37.3% vs 36.7%; multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.65-0.97]). It was estimated that controlled BP was less likely among non-Hispanic Black adults vs non-Hispanic White adults (41.5% vs 48.2%, respectively; multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.81-0.96). Controlled BP was more likely among those with private insurance (48.2%), Medicare (53.4%), or government health insurance other than Medicare or Medicaid (43.2%) vs among those without health insurance (24.2%) (multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.08-1.80], 1.47 [95% CI, 1.15-1.89], and 1.36 [95% CI, 1.04-1.76], respectively). Controlled BP was more likely among those with vs those without a usual health care facility (48.4% vs 26.5%, respectively; multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio, 1.48 [95% CI, 1.13-1.94]) and among those who had vs those who had not had a health care visit in the past year (49.1% vs 8.0%; multivariable-adjusted prevalence ratio, 5.23 [95% CI, 2.88-9.49]).In a series of cross-sectional surveys weighted to be representative of the adult US population, the prevalence of controlled BP increased between 1999-2000 and 2007-2008, did not significantly change from 2007-2008 through 2013-2014, and then decreased after 2013-2014.

Introduction: The primary goal of initiating antihypertensive medication is to prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD). It has been hypothesized that using CVD risk to guide the decision to initiate antihypertensive medication may prevent more CVD events than treatment guided by blood pressure (BP) alone. Methods: We estimated the number of CVD and all-cause deaths that could be prevented among US adults through the initiation of antihypertensive medication based on high CVD risk versus high BP. CVD and all-cause mortality rates were calculated using data from 4,390 participants 40 to 79 years of age not taking antihypertensive medication from the 1999 to 2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) mortality follow-up study. High BP was defined by systolic BP ≥ 140 mm Hg or diastolic BP ≥ 90 mm Hg. High CVD risk was defined by 10-year predicted CVD risk ≥10% using the Pooled Cohort risk equations or a history of CVD. Relative risks and 95% confidence limits for CVD and all-cause mortality with antihypertensive medication of 0.75 (0.57-0.98) and 0.76 (0.63-0.91), respectively, were obtained from the Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists Collaboration. Results: Among US adults not taking antihypertensive medication, 19.4% (23.5 million) had high BP and 25.5% (30.9 million) had high CVD risk. CVD mortality rates were 5.3 and 3.9 per 1,000 person-years among US adults with high CVD risk versus high BP, respectively (Table). Using high CVD risk to guide antihypertensive medication initiation is projected to prevent 403,093 deaths from CVD over 10 years compared with 224,312 deaths from CVD projected to be prevented using a BP-guided treatment approach. More all-cause deaths are projected to be prevented by using high CVD risk (2.2 million deaths) rather than high BP (1.1 million deaths) to guide the decision to initiate antihypertensive medication. Conclusions: Using predicted CVD risk instead of BP alone to guide antihypertensive medication initiation is projected to prevent more CVD and all-cause deaths.

Introduction: Childhood obesity is a growing epidemic in the United States with approximately 1 in 5 children being obese. Although prevalence estimates for childhood obesity are regularly updated, little is known about the current incidence of childhood obesity among a nationally representative population, since initial estimates were provided by the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten (ECLS-K) Class of 1998. Methods: We estimated the annual incidence of obesity and the cumulative incidence of obesity over 5 years using the contemporary ECLS-K Class of 2011 (analytic sample = 7019). Height and weight were measured at eight time points between kindergarten (2010) and fourth grade (2015). We defined normal weight (th percentile), overweight (85 th -95 th percentile), and obesity (>95 th percentile) using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sex-and age-specific growth curves. Results: At kindergarten entry (mean age 5.6 years), 15.5% of children were overweight and 14.7% of children were obese; in fourth grade (mean age 10.1 years) overweight prevalence had increased to 17.3% and obesity prevalence had increased to 20.1%. Kindergarteners who were overweight were 6 times as likely as normal-weight kindergarteners to become obese by fourth grade (5-year cumulative incidence, 30.5% vs. 5.2%). In early elementary school, annualized obesity incidence proportions were higher over summer breaks (5.6% and 5.4% during summer breaks from Kindergarten to first grade and first grade to second grade, respectively) than during the school year (3.8% and 3.8% during Kindergarten and first grade school years, respectively). Incident obesity was higher among boys compared girls, non-Hispanic black and Hispanic children compared to non-Hispanic white children, and among those from the poorest socioeconomic quintiles compared to the highest socioeconomic quintile. Conclusions: Incident obesity between the ages of 5 and 10 years was more likely to have occurred during summer breaks and primarily among children who had entered kindergarten overweight. Childhood obesity prevention efforts should focus on the prevention of overweight prior to kindergarten and investigate causes of summer weight gain during elementary school.

Introduction: Racial differences in cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality are well established by middle age with African Americans contributing to higher rates of cardiovascular disease. In addition to traditional risk factors, African Americans experience greater exposure to stressful life events. Both an enhanced and a blunted hemodynamic reactivity to acute psychological stress have been associated with worse cardiovascular health status and may contribute to these disparities. Methods: We studied 920 patients with stable coronary artery disease (CAD) and 109 controls without CAD. Systolic blood pressure (SBP), heart rate (HR), and rate-pressure product (RPP) were measured prior to, and following a public speaking stress task. We examined the association between race and hemodynamic reactivity to stress using mixed linear regression models adjusting for cardiovascular disease severity, medication usage and psychosocial, demographic and lifestyle factors. Results: Of the 920 patients (mean age 59 years), 39% were African American. African Americans had a more adverse socioeconomic and cardiometabolic profile (hypertension, diabetes, and body mass index) compared to white Americans. In response to mental stress, African American patients exhibited a lower increase in SBP (23 vs 27 mmHg; p Conclusions: African Americans with CAD exhibit a blunted hemodynamic response to mental stress compared to white Americans. Further research is needed to clarify the determinants of such differences and whether they contribute to race disparities in cardiovascular disease risk.

Key Points Question Have systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) levels among US children changed during the past 20 years? Findings In this serial cross-sectional study of 19 273 children and adolescents included in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), age-adjusted mean SBP was lower in the 2015-2018 cycle compared with the 1999-2002 cycle among adolescents aged 13 to 17 years, and mean DBP was lower in the 2015-2018 cycle compared with the 1999-2002 cycle among children aged 8 to 12 and adolescents aged 13 to 17 years. Meaning These representative findings suggest that from 1999-2002 to 2015-2018, mean SBP decreased among adolescents aged 13 to 17 years and mean DBP decreased among children and adolescents aged 8 to 12 and 13 to 17 years, respectively, in the US., This cross-sectional study assesses data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to determine whether systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels among US children and adolescents have changed during the past 20 years., Importance Higher blood pressure (BP) levels in children are associated with an increased risk for hypertension and subclinical cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Identifying trends in BP could inform the need for interventions to lower BP. Objective To determine whether systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP) levels among US children have changed during the past 20 years. Design, Setting, and Participants This serial cross-sectional analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data included 9117 children aged 8 to 12 years and 10 156 adolescents aged 13 to 17 years, weighted to the US population from 1999-2002 to 2015-2018. Data were collected from March 1999 to December 2018 and analyzed from March 26, 2020, to February 2, 2021. Exposures Calendar year. Main Outcomes and Measures The primary outcomes were mean SBP and mean DBP. Results A total of 19 273 participants were included in the analysis. Among children aged 8 to 12 years in 2015-2018 (mean age, 10.5 [95% CI, 10.5-10.6] years), 48.7% (95% CI, 45.2%-52.2%) were girls and 51.3% (95% CI, 47.8%-54.8%) were boys; 49.7% (95% CI, 42.2%-57.1%) were non-Hispanic White; 13.7% (95% CI, 10.3%-18.1%) were non-Hispanic Black; 25.5% (95% CI, 19.9%-32.0%) were Hispanic; 4.7% (95% CI, 3.2%-6.7%) were non-Hispanic Asian; and 6.5% (95% CI, 4.9%-8.5%) were other non-Hispanic race/ethnicity. Among those aged 13 to 17 years in 2015-2018 (mean age, 15.5 [95% CI, 15.5-15.5] years), 49.1% (95% CI, 46.1%-52.2%) were girls and 50.9% (95% CI, 47.8%-53.9%) were boys; 53.3% (95% CI, 46.4%-60.1%) were non-Hispanic White; 13.9% (95% CI, 10.3%-18.7%) were non-Hispanic Black; 21.9% (95% CI, 16.6%-28.2%) were Hispanic; 4.6% (95% CI, 3.2%-6.5%) were non-Hispanic Asian; and 6.3% (95% CI, 4.7%-8.5%) were other non-Hispanic race/ethnicity. Among children aged 8 to 12 years, age-adjusted mean SBP decreased from 102.4 (95% CI, 101.7-103.1) mm Hg in 1999-2002 to 101.5 (95% CI, 100.8-102.2) mm Hg in 2011-2014 and then increased to 102.5 (95% CI, 101.9-103.2) mm Hg in 2015-2018. Age-adjusted mean DBP decreased from 57.2 (95% CI, 56.5-58.0) mm Hg in 1999-2002 to 51.9 (95% CI, 50.1-53.7) mm Hg in 2011-2014 and increased to 53.2 (95% CI, 52.2-54.1) mm Hg in 2015-2018. Among adolescents aged 13 to 17 years, age-adjusted mean SBP decreased from 109.2 (95% CI, 108.7-109.7) mm Hg in 1999-2002 to 108.4 (95% CI, 107.8-109.1) mm Hg in 2011-2014 and remained unchanged in 2015-2018 (108.4 [95% CI, 107.8-109.1] mm Hg). Mean DBP decreased from 62.6 (95% CI, 61.7-63.5) mm Hg in 1999-2002 to 59.6 (95% CI, 58.2-60.9) mm Hg in 2011-2014 and then increased to 60.8 (95% CI, 59.8-61.7) mm Hg in 2015-2018. Among children aged 8 to 12 years, mean SBP was 3.2 (95% CI, 1.7-4.6) mm Hg higher among those with overweight and 6.8 (95% CI, 5.6-8.1) mm Hg higher among those with obesity compared with normal weight; mean DBP was 3.2 (95% CI, 0.7-5.6) mm Hg higher among those with overweight and 3.5 (95% CI, 1.9- 5.1) mm Hg higher among those with obesity compared with normal weight. Among adolescents aged 13 to 17 years, mean SBP was 3.5 (95% CI 1.9-5.1) mm Hg higher among those with overweight and 6.6 (95% CI, 5.2-8.0) mm Hg higher among those with obesity compared with normal weight, 4.8 (95% CI, 3.8-5.8) mm Hg higher among boys compared with girls, and 3.0 (95% CI, 1.7-4.3) mm Hg higher among non-Hispanic Black compared with non-Hispanic White participants. Conclusions and Relevance Despite an overall decline in mean SBP and DBP from 1999-2002 to 2015-2018, BP levels among children and adolescents may have increased from 2011-2014 to 2015-2018.

Key Points Question Have the initial antihypertensive medication regimens filled by older US adults with hypertension changed following publication of the Eighth Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure panel member report? Findings In this serial cross-sectional study of 41 340 Medicare beneficiaries, there was no statistically significant change in the proportion of Black beneficiaries initiating antihypertensive monotherapy with an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker following publication of the panel members’ report. The proportion initiating β-blocker monotherapy remained high among all race/ethnicity groups. Meaning Many older US adults who initiate antihypertensive medication do so with non–guideline-recommended classes of medication., Importance In December 2013, the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC8) published a recommendation that non-Black adults initiate antihypertensive medication with a thiazide-type diuretic, calcium channel blocker, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI), or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB), whereas Black adults initiate treatment with a thiazide-type diuretic or calcium channel blocker. β-Blockers were not recommended as first-line therapy. Objective To assess changes in antihypertensive medication classes initiated by race/ethnicity from before to after publication of the JNC8 panel member report. Design, Setting, and Participants This serial cross-sectional analysis assessed a 5% sample of Medicare beneficiaries aged 66 years or older who initiated antihypertensive medication between 2011 and 2018, were Black (n = 3303 [8.0%]), White (n = 34 943 [84.5%]), or of other (n = 3094 [7.5%]) race/ethnicity, and did not have compelling indications for specific antihypertensive medication classes. Exposures Calendar year and period after vs before publication of the JNC8 panel member report. Main Outcomes and Measures The proportion of beneficiaries initiating ACEIs or ARBs and, separately, β-blockers vs other antihypertensive medication classes. Results In total, 41 340 Medicare beneficiaries (65% women; mean [SD] age, 75.7 [7.6] years) of Black, White, or other races/ethnicities initiated antihypertensive medication and met the inclusion criteria for the present study. In 2011, 25.2% of Black beneficiaries initiating antihypertensive monotherapy did so with an ACEI or ARB compared with 23.7% in 2018 (P = .47 for trend). Among beneficiaries initiating monotherapy, the proportion filling a β-blocker was 20.1% in 2011 and 15.4% in 2018 for White beneficiaries (P .10 for interaction). Conclusions and Relevance A substantial proportion of older US adults who initiate antihypertensive medication do so with non–guideline-recommended classes of medication., This serial cross-sectional study assesses whether any race/ethnicity-specific changes occurred from before to after publication of the Eighth Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure panel member report for the initiation of antihypertensive medication classes in a 5% sample of Medicare beneficiaries aged 66 years or older.

Sleep disorders and sleep insufficiency are common among preschool-aged children. Studies among school-aged children show disordered sleep is often more prevalent among racial minority groups. The primary aim of this systematic review was to critically appraise empirical data to elucidate the relationship between race and key sleep variables among children aged two to five years old. By systematically searching PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases, we identified empirical research articles conducted in the United States that investigate this relationship. We searched for variables relevant to (1) insufficient sleep duration, (2) poor sleep quality, (3) irregular timing of sleep, including sleep/wake problems and irregular bedtime onset and wake times (4) and sleep/circadian disorders. Nine studies satisfied the criteria for inclusion: five investigated nocturnal sleep duration, five investigated bedtime-related variables, four investigated daytime sleep (napping), three investigated total sleep, two investigated sleep quality, and one investigated wake times. Four studies specifically addressed racial and demographic differences in sleep variables as the primary aim, while the remaining five contained analyses addressing racial and demographic differences in sleep as secondary aims. Non-Hispanic white, white, or European-American race was used as the reference category in all studies. The results provided consistent evidence that white, non-Hispanic children were more likely to go to bed earlier and more regularly, have longer nocturnal sleep, and nap less than most racial and ethnic minorities. Combined, this literature presents a compelling narrative implicating race as an important factor in sleep patterns among a preschool age population.

Living in neighborhoods characterized by poverty may act as a chronic stressor that results in physiological dysregulation of the sympathetic nervous system. No previous study has assessed neighborhood poverty with hemodynamic, neuroendocrine, and immune reactivity to stress. We used data from 632 patients with coronary artery disease. Patients’ residential addresses were geocoded and merged with poverty data from the 2010 American Community Survey at the census-tract level. A z-transformation was calculated to classify census tracts (neighborhoods) as either having ‘high’ or ‘low’ poverty. Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, rate-pressure product, epinephrine, interleukin-6, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein were measured before and after a public speaking stress task. Multilevel models were used for repeated measures and accounting for individuals nested within census tracts. Adjusted models included demographics, lifestyle and medical risk factors, and medication use. Another set of models included propensity scores weighted by the inverse probability of neighborhood status for sex, age, race, and individual-level income. The mean age was 63 years and 173 were women. After adjusting for potential confounders, participants living in high (vs. low) poverty neighborhoods had similar hemodynamic values at rest and lower values during mental stress for systolic blood pressure (157 mmHg vs. 161 mmHg; p = 0.07), heart rate (75 beats/min vs. 78 beats/min; p = 0.02) and rate-pressure product (11839 mmHg x beat/min vs 12579 mmHg x beat/min; p = 0.01). P-values for neighborhood poverty-by-time interactions were < 0.05. Results were similar in the propensity weighted models. There were no significant differences in inflammatory and epinephrine responses to mental stress based on neighborhood poverty status. A blunted hemodynamic response to mental stress was observed among participants living in high poverty neighborhoods. Future studies should explore whether neighborhood poverty and blunted hemodynamic response to stress translate into differences in long-term cardiovascular outcomes.

While much of the chronic kidney disease (CKD) literature focuses on the role of blood pressure reduction in delaying CKD progression, little is known about the benefits of modest population-wide decrements in blood pressure on incident CKD. The authors used multivariable linear regression to characterize the impact on incident CKD of two approaches for blood pressure management: (1) a 1-mm Hg reduction in systolic BP across the entire study population; and (2) a 10% reduction in participants with unaware, untreated, and uncontrolled BP above goal as defined by the Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC 7) thresholds. Over a mean of 20 years of follow-up (ARIC [Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities] study, n = 15 390), 3852 incident CKD events were ascertained. After adjustment, a 1-mm Hg decrement in systolic BP across the population was associated with an estimated 11.7 (95% confidence interval [CI], 6.2-17.3) and 13.4 (95% CI, 10.3-16.6) fewer CKD events per 100 000 person-years in blacks and whites, respectively. Among participants with BP above JNC 7 goal, a 10% decrease in unaware, untreated, or uncontrolled BP was associated with 3.2 (95% CI, 2.0-4.9), 2.8 (95% CI, 1.8-4.3), and 5.8 (95% CI, 3.6-8.8) fewer CKD events per 100 000 person-years in blacks and 3.1 (95% CI, 2.3-4.1), 0.7 (95% CI, 0.5-0.9), and 1.0 (95% CI, 1.3-2.4) fewer CKD events per 100 000 person-years in whites. Modest population-wide reductions in systolic BP hold potential for the primary prevention of CKD.

Background: While much of the chronic kidney disease (CKD) literature focuses on the role of blood pressure reduction in delaying CKD progression, little is known about the benefits of modest population-wide decrements in blood pressure on incident CKD. Methods: We used multivariable linear regression to estimate incidence rate differences comparing the impact of 2 pragmatic hypothetical interventions to reduce the incidence of CKD: (1) a population-wide intervention that reduced systolic blood pressure by 1 mmHg and (2) targeted interventions that reduced the prevalence of unaware, untreated, or uncontrolled blood pressure above goal (as defined by Joint National Committee (JNC) 7 and JNC 8 thresholds) by 10%. The population comprised 15,390 participants of the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study (45-64 years of age at baseline, 1987-1989). Incident CKD was ascertained from laboratory assays and abstraction of medical records. Results: Over a mean of 20 years of follow up, 3,852 incident CKD events were ascertained. After adjustment for antihypertensive use, gender, diabetes, and age a 1 mmHg decrement in SBP across the total population was associated with an estimated 11.7 and 13.4 fewer incident CKD events per 100,000 person-years (PY) in African Americans and white Americans, respectively. Among participants with blood pressure above JNC 7 goal, a 10% decrease in unaware, untreated, or uncontrolled blood pressure was associated with 3.2, 2.8 and 5.8 fewer incident CKD events per 100,000 PY in African Americans and 3.1, 0.7, and 1.0 fewer incident CKD per 100,000 PY in white Americans. Interventions targeted to the population with blood pressure above JNC 7 goal produced greater reductions in incident CKD than interventions targeted at reductions in blood pressure above JNC 8 treatment goal. Extrapolation to the US African American and white American populations age greater than 45 years (NHANES 2010) suggests that a 1 mmHg decrement in SBP could result in approximately 9,996 fewer incident CKD events annually compared to approximately 2,098, 636, and 1,598 fewer incident CKD events potentially preventable from 10% decreases in unaware, untreated, and uncontrolled blood pressure above goal. Conclusions: Modest blood pressure interventions population-wide provide an opportunity to substantially reduce the burden of incident CKD. Among the high-risk population, lowering the threshold for blood pressure treatment to JNC 7’s treatment goal could increase the impact of high-risk strategies on CKD prevention when compared to JNC 8’s treatment goal.

To examine the ability of total cholesterol (TC), a low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) proxy widely used in public health initiatives, to capture important population-level shifts away from ideal and intermediate LDL-C throughout adulthood. We estimated age (≥20 years)-, race/ethnic (Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic/Latino)-, and sex- specific net transition probabilities between ideal, intermediate, and poor TC and LDL-C using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2007–2014; N = 13,584) and Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (2008–2011; N = 15,612) data in 2016 and validated and calibrated novel Markov-type models designed for cross-sectional data. At age 20, >80% of participants had ideal TC, whereas the race/ethnic- and sex-specific prevalence of ideal LDL-C ranged from 39.2%-59.6%. Net transition estimates suggested that the largest one-year net shifts away from ideal and intermediate LDL-C occurred approximately two decades earlier than peak net population shifts away from ideal and intermediate TC. Public health and clinical initiatives focused on monitoring TC in middle-adulthood may miss important shifts away from ideal and intermediate LDL-C, potentially increasing the duration, perhaps by decades, that large segments of the population are exposed to suboptimal LDL-C.

Importance Many studies have assessed racial/ethnic and sex disparities in the prevalence of elevated blood pressure (BP) from childhood to adulthood, yet few have examined differences in age-specific transitions between categories of BP over the life course in contemporary, multiracial/multiethnic populations. Objective To estimate age, racial/ethnic, and sex–specific annual net transition probabilities between categories of BP using Markov modeling of cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Design, Setting, and Participants National probability sample (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in 2007-2008, 2009-2010, and 2011-2012) of 17 747 African American, white American, and Mexican American participants aged 8 to 80 years. The data were analyzed from September 2014 to November 2015. Main Outcomes and Measures Age-specific American Heart Association–defined BP categories. Results Three National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey cross-sectional samples were used to characterize the ages at which self-reported African American (n = 4973), white American (n = 8886), and Mexican American (n = 3888) populations transitioned between ideal BP, prehypertension, and hypertension across the life course. At age 8 years, disparities in the prevalence of ideal BP were observed, with the prevalence being lower among boys (86.6%-88.8%) compared with girls (93.0%-96.3%). From ages 8 to 30 years, annual net transition probabilities from ideal to prehypertension among male individuals were more than 2 times the net transition probabilities of their female counterparts. The largest net transition probabilities for ages 8 to 30 years occurred in African American young men, among whom a net 2.9% (95% CI, 2.3%-3.4%) of those with ideal BP transitioned to prehypertension 1 year later. Mexican American young women aged 8 to 30 years experienced the lowest ideal to prehypertension net transition probabilities (0.6%; 95% CI, 0.3%-0.8%). After age 40 years, ideal to prehypertension net transition probabilities stabilized or decreased (range, 3.0%-4.5%) for men, whereas net transition probabilities for women increased rapidly (range, 2.6%-13.0%). Mexican American women exhibited the largest ideal to prehypertension net transition probabilities after age 60 years. The largest prehypertension to hypertension net transition probabilities occurred at young ages in boys of white race/ethnicity and African Americans, approximately age 8 years and age 25 years, respectively, while net transition probabilities for white women and Mexican Americans increased over the life course. Conclusions and Relevance Heterogeneity in net transition probabilities from ideal BP emerge during childhood, with associated rapid declines in ideal BP observed in boys and African Americans, thus introducing disparities. Primordial prevention beginning in childhood and into early adulthood is necessary to preempt the development of prehypertension and hypertension, as well as associated racial/ethnic and sex disparities.

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Introduction: Gender and race/ethnic disparities in the burden of adverse blood pressure (BP) levels in adulthood have origins in childhood. Proper timing of primordial prevention efforts could narrow inequalities in BP trajectories across the life course. Few studies have characterized the ages at which children transition from ideal BP by gender and race/ethnicity, using contemporary multiethnic populations. Methods: We utilized the prevalence of ideal (95th percentile for SBP and/or DBP) BP levels among African American (AA), European American (EA), and Mexican American (MA) NHANES participants (2007-2012, n=4,566) to estimate race/ethnic, age (8-19 years), and sex-specific net probabilities of transitioning between levels of BP using novel Markov-type modeling. Results: At age 8, the prevalence of ideal BP differed more by gender than by race/ethnicity, with the prevalence of ideal BP among boys (AA: 87%; EA and MA: 89%) being lower than the prevalence of ideal BP in girls (AA: 92%, EA 94%, MA 96%). From age 8, the magnitude of net declines in ideal BP also varied by gender and race/ethnicity. For example, between ages 8-11, the population of AA boys with ideal BP declined a net 1.6% [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-1.8%] annually, net declines that were approximately 25% greater than net declines estimated in EA and MA boys. For all race/ethnic groups, annual net declines in ideal BP among girls were less than half the decline of their male counterparts. Between 12-15 years of age, the largest declines for both genders occurred in AAs (AA boys: 2.1%, 95% CI: 1.7-2.5%; AA girls: 0.9%, 95% CI: 0.7-1.1%). By age 19, the annual net declines in ideal BP increased to approximately 2.9% (95% CI: 2.3-3.5%) and 1.4% (95% CI: 1.1-1.7%) per year for AA boys and AA girls, respectively. These declines, together with earlier net transition patterns widened ideal BP disparities in both boys (AA 68%, EA 73%, MA 75%) and girls (AA 84%, EA 89% MA 93%) at age 19. Conclusions: Disparities in transitions from ideal BP emerge during childhood and early adolescence, with disparate, rapid declines in ideal BP observed in boys and AAs, thus introducing BP disparities. Research emphasizing safe and effective primordial prevention efforts in childhood is necessary to preempt disparities and their maintenance.