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This article addresses the problem of "education for all," and offers a research proposal that replaces procedural learning by a learning practice whereby all are engaged. Although educational research since 1990 of dialogical learning (DL) and collaborative learning (CL) have shown that it is possible to promote the learning practices that they focus on, little evidence is available on long-term effects of school achievement. Teachers also face pressure from both the UK and USA governments having produced policy documents favouring procedural teaching. An exception is CASE, Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (1984 onwards), and a 2-year course for 12-14 year-olds. This functioned by collaborative learning placed in highly structured theory-based science lessons based on Piagetian models of difficulty. Students consistently performed higher in National exams in science, maths and English at 16 (Shayer, 1999b). It is argued that a better way of changing teaching practice would be to place it in teachers' initial training. By assisting trainee science teachers, in designing their science curriculum lessons--assisted by DL and CL literature--to extract and use the same theory-base that had been used by CA staff for constructing CASE lessons, they would possess a valid theory and practice of teaching.

This article presents three studies, two of them longitudinal, which investigated the relations between age, processing speed, working memory (WM), and fluid intelligence ("g[subscript f]") from 4 to 16 years of age. Structural equation modeling showed that speed was a powerful covariate of age ([approximately] - 0.6 to - 0.7) from 4 to 13 years, declining thereafter (to [approximately] - 0.2). WM was stably related to speed through the whole age-span studied ([approximately] - 0.4 to - 0.5). A large part (59%) of age-related changes in "g[subscript f]" (83%) from 4 to 7 years and a lower but significant part later on, especially in adolescence ([approximately] 10-20% out of [approximately] 40-50%), were mediated by WM. However, with speed and age controlled, WM was almost fully commensurate with "g[subscript f]" ([approximately] 0.9), from about the age of 8-9 years onwards. A series of models suggested an ever present efficiency level defined by speed and control and a representational level defined by WM and "g[subscript f]", which are increasingly differentiated with development. All processes develop in cycles concerted by a dynamic G. Change in each process over time originated from within the processes themselves and G, in proportions varying with developmental phase. Overall, speed signified age-associated changes in processing capabilities, partly expressed in WM expansions and "g[subscript f]" reconstructions. An overarching model is proposed integrating differential with developmental theories of human intelligence. (Contains 2 tables and 5 figures.)

Background: In the context of the British Government's policy directed on improving standards in schools, this paper presents research on the effects of a programme intended to promote the cognitive development of children in the first 2 years of primary school (Y1 & 2, aged 5-7 years). The programme is based on earlier work dealing with classroom-based interventions with older children at both primary and secondary levels of schooling. Aim: The hypothesis tested is that it is possible to increase the cognitive ability of children by assisting teachers towards that aim in the context of mathematics. A corollary hypothesis is that such an increase would result in an increase in long-term school achievement. Sample: The participants were 8 teachers in one local education authority (LEA) and 10 teachers in another. Data were analysed on 275 children present at Year 1 pre-test in 2002 and at long-term Key Stage 2 post-test in 2008. Method: Two intervention methods were employed: a Y1 set of interactive activities designed around Piagetian concrete operational schemata, and mathematics lessons in both Y1 and Y2 designed from a theory-base derived from both Piaget and Vygotsky. Results: At post-test in 2004, the mean effect sizes for cognitive development of the children--assessed by the Piagetian test "Spatial Relations"--were 0.71 "SD" in one LEA and 0.60 "SD" in the other. Five classes achieved a median increase of 1.3 "SD". The mean gains over pre-test in 2002 for all children in Key Stage 1 English in 2004 were 0.51 "SD", and at Key Stage 2 English in 2008--the long-term effect - were 0.36 SD, an improvement of 14 percentile points. Conclusions: The main hypothesis was supported by the data on cognitive development. The corollary hypothesis is supported by the gains in English. The implications of this study are that relative intelligence can be increased and is not fixed, and that children can be led into collaborating with each other to the benefit of their own thinking, and that there does exist a theory-based methodology for the improvement of teaching.

Background: Shayer, Ginsburg, and Coe (2007) showed that children leaving primary school in Y6 entered secondary school with much lower levels of understanding of the physical conservations than in 1976. It seemed desirable to investigate cognitive development in the first three years of secondary education. Aims: By using two Piagetian tests of formal operations, one of which had been used in the 1976 CSMS survey, the performance of Y8 and Y9 pupils would be compared with the survey results published in 1978. Sample: Eight schools were selected as willing to test their Y9 or Y8 classes on either the "Pendulum" (in 2007) or the "Equilibrium in the Balance" tests (in 2006), giving 39 classes on which to make the comparison with 1976 performance. Method: Regression of the pupils' class mean on each formal test on either the class's 2004 MidYIS or nferCAT standardized scores, and computing the regression at IQ = 100 allows comparison with that found in 1976. Results: On "Equilibrium in the Balance" the Y8 pupils were down on the proportion at the early formal level or above by -0.61 standard deviations (SD) for boys and -0.63 SD for girls on the 1976 results. On the "Pendulum" the Y9 boys were down by -0.49 SD and the girls by -0.48 SD on the proportion at the early formal level or above. Conclusion: The negative Flynn-effect found on "Volume & Heaviness" for Y7 pupils is paralleled by a similar negative effect on attainment of formal operations by Y8 and Y9, compared with 1976. Yet at the same time the proportion of pupils using the top level of concrete operational thinking has increased on both tests. It seems that there has been a change either in general societal pressures on the individual or in the style of teaching in schools--or both--favouring a lower level of processing of reality.

Two separate paths to the concept of intelligence are discussed: the psychometric path being concerned with the "measurement" of intelligence, involving the methodology of norm-referenced testing; the path followed by Piaget, and others, addresses from the start the related question of how intelligence can be "described," and employs a criterion-referenced methodology. The achievements of psychometrics are briefly described, with an argument that they now remain important tools of what Kuhn called "normal science." The criterion-referenced approach of Piaget and others is described, with evidence from intervention studies that the Genevan descriptions of children-in-action have allowed the choice of contexts within which children can profitably be challenged to go further in their thinking. Hence, Genevan psychology is "also" now a part of the normal science with important uses, shown both in neo-Piagetian studies and further research stemming from Geneva. Discussion of the "Flynn effect" sheds light on both paths, with problems still unresolved. The argument is then developed that the relevance of neuroscience needs to be discussed to try to decide in what ways it may provide useful insights into intelligence.

The CAME project was inaugurated in 1993 as an intervention delivered in the context of mathematics with the intention of accelerating the cognitive development of students in the first two years of secondary education. This paper reports substantial post-test and long-term National examination effects of the intervention, yet, by discussing the methodology used, questions the assumptions implicit in the original intention. It is now suggested that a better view is to regard CAME as a constructive criticism of normal instructional teaching, with implications for the role of mathematics teachers and university staff in future professional development.

Background: "Volume & Heaviness" was one of three Piagetian tests used in the CSMS survey in 1975/76. However unlike psychometric tests showing the Flynn effect--that is with students showing steady improvements year by year requiring tests to be restandardized--it appeared that the performance of Y7 students has recently been getting steadily worse. Aims: A sample of schools sufficiently large and representative was chosen so that the hypothesis of worsening performance could be tested, and estimated quantitatively. Sample: Sixty-nine Y7 school year groups containing pupil data on the "Volume & Heaviness" test and the University of Durham CEM Centre MidYIS test were located giving a sample of 10, 023 students covering the years 2000 to 2003. Method: Regression of the students' school mean on "Volume & Heaviness" on the schools' mean MidYIS 1999 standardized score, and computing the regression at MidYS = 100 allows comparison with that found in 1976. Results: The mean drops in scores from 1976 to 2003 were boys = 1.13 and girls = 0.6 levels. A differential of 0.50 standard deviations in favour of boys in 1976 had completely disappeared by the year 2002. Between 1976 and 2003 the effect-size of the drop in the boys' performance was 1.04 standard deviations, and for girls was 0.55 standard deviations. Conclusion: The idea that children leaving primary school are getting more and more intelligent and competent--whether it is viewed in terms of the Flynn effect, or in terms of government statistics on performance in Key Stage 2 SATS in mathematics and science--is put into question by these findings.

This paper describes the application of theories underlying research-in-progress intended to enhance substantially the cognitive development of children in the first two years of Primary school. The intervention is delivered partly in the context of mathematics, and partly through an existing Y1 intervention focused on Piaget's concrete operations. The research addresses the findings of the CSMS surveys 30 years ago that barely 20% of the population achieve, by the end of adolescence, the cognitive development which Piaget presented as normal. The research aim is to alter this proportion from the very beginning so that more children may benefit from schooling.

Reports on the results of using, in the context of secondary education in Pakistan, an intervention program which earlier was shown in British schools to have a substantial effect over a two-year period on the cognitive development of pupils. (Author/CCM)

Addresses some criticisms of the Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE) project. Offers a different description of the CASE teaching method and presents evidence from the program. Contains 20 references. (Author/WRM)

A 1-year lag was found between the effect of an intervention intended to promote formal operational thinking in students initially 11 or 12 years of age and the appearance of substantial science achievement in the experimental groups. A one-year lag on cognitive development and an age/gender interaction were also reported. (Author/KR)

Two years after the end of a two-year intervention program set within the context of science learning intended to promote formal operational thinking, achievement of students (n=234) was tested by their results on British National examinations taken at age 16. Male experimental subjects achieved an average of 40 percent more grades of C or above than male control subjects. (Author/MVL)

Evidence is offered that the Levels of Attainment in Science in Britain's National Curriculum will be achieved by only the top 20 percent of 14 and 16 year olds, rather than 50 percent as planned. New teaching skills are presented as ways to alter this prediction. Success in improving standards is demonstrated in three examples. (Author/KR)

The effect of intervention lessons designed to accelerate the development of formal operations taught over a period of two years to adolescents was assessed. Results indicated that the experimental group had achieved a significantly greater gain in cognitive levels than the control group. Implications are discussed. (CW)

The relationship of cognitive development to learning science is considered. Views of thinking from both a psychological and a scientific standpoint are compared in order to shed light on current science teaching practice. Metacognition and problem solving are discussed. (Author/MT)

Attempts to show that not only can density be taught to lower ability pupils but that by doing so, there is the possibility of assisting pupils to develop their reasoning powers. Lists teaching activities that help in this process. (CW)

Assesses the physics, chemistry and biology content of the Nuffield Combined Science Course used in British schools by experimental testing to children's understanding of the course. A model by which the pupils' achievement is mapped to an estimate of their maximum Piagetian level of thinking is presented. (HM)

Describes the development of a Piagetian demonstration group test utilized to assess 9-12 year-old students' (N=161) understanding of heat and temperature. Findings include a unitary relationship between Piagetian stages of development and levels of understanding of heat concepts. (DS)

Describes a set of Science Reasoning Tasks which are valid and reliable for assessing the ability of children to use concrete and formal reasoning strategies and can be used by science teachers without professional training in Piagetian studies. Thirty pupils can be tested on each task in about 50 minutes. (Author/DS)

A sex-related difference, favoring boys, was found on initial performance of two samples (one British, one American) of 10- and 11-year-old children on tasks involving volume and density. After classroom instruction that included opportunities for interaction with appropriate materials, both sexes performed at higher levels but differences remained. (Author/DS)