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I. Introduction II. Sexual Harassment as a Form of Sex Discrimination III. An Implied Private Right of Action under Title IX A. Judicially Created Private Right of Action & Available [...]

INTRODUCTION During the academic year, children spend thirty to fifty percent of their time in and around schools. Since public schools are under public control, citizens and elected officials have [...]

Antimicrobial resistance is widespread. Overuse or misuse of antimicrobial agents in veterinary and human medicine is responsible for increasing the crisis of resistance to antimicrobial agents. The American Academy of Pediatrics, in conjunction with the US Public Health Service, has begun to address this problem by disseminating policies on the judicious use of antimicrobial agents in humans. Between 40% and 80% of the antimicrobial agents used in the United States each year are used in food animals; many are identical or very similar to drugs used in humans. Most of this use involves the addition of low doses of antimicrobial agents to the feed of healthy animals over prolonged periods to promote growth and increase feed efficiency or at a range of doses to prevent disease. These nontherapeutic uses contribute to resistance and create health dangers for humans. This report will describe how antimicrobial agents are used in animal agriculture and review the mechanisms by which such uses contribute to resistance in human pathogens. Although therapeutic use of antimicrobial agents in agriculture clearly contributes to the development of resistance, this report will concentrate on nontherapeutic uses in healthy animals. Pediatrics 2004; 114:862-868; antibiotic, antimicrobial, resistance, child, infant, agriculture, foodborne, epidemiology., ABBREVIATIONS. NARMS, National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System; VRE, vancomycin-resistant enterococci; Q-D, quinupristin-dalfopristin. ANTIMICROBIAL USE IN ANIMAL FEEDS Rationale for Use In livestock and poultry production, antimicrobial agents are used therapeutically, [...]

Antimicrobial resistance has reached crisis stage in human medicine. The rapid acceleration of multidrug-resistant bacteria in the past 2 decades has overtaken new drug development, and patients and clinicians are faced with the prospect of untreatable infections. Although much of the problem stems from overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents in human medicine, large-scale use of antimicrobials in agriculture also contributes to the crisis. Agricultural uses of antibiotics produce environmental exposures in a variety of reservoirs, which select for resistant microbes and microbial genes. This article presents the major lines of evidence documenting the risks to human health of some of the agricultural uses of antimicrobials. A brief review of the microbiologic antecedents of resistance is followed by a discussion of agricultural uses of antimicrobials and a targeted review of the literature, which provides the background knowledge and evidence necessary for pediatricians and other clinicians to be informed and to advocate for judicious use of antimicrobials in all sectors., ABBREVIATIONS. FDA, Food and Drug Administration; VRE, vancomycin-resistant enterococci. After each new antimicrobial is introduced into clinical practice, development of resistance in human pathogens consistently follows. (1) During the initial [...]

Phthalates are plasticizers that are added to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products to impart flexibility and durability. They are produced in high volume and generate extensive though poorly defined human exposures and unique childhood exposures. Phthalates are animal carcinogens and can cause fetal death, malformations, and reproductive toxicity in laboratory animals. Toxicity profiles and potency vary by specific phthalate. The extent of these toxicities and their applicability to humans remains incompletely characterized and controversial. Two phthalates, diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and diisononyl phthalate (DINP), have received considerable attention recently because of specific concerns about pediatric exposures. Like all phthalates, DEHP and DINP are ubiquitous contaminants in food, indoor air, soils, and sediments. DEHP is used in toys and medical devices. DINP is a major plasticizer used in children's toys. Scientific panels, advocacy groups, and industry groups have analyzed the literature on DEHP and DINP and have come to different conclusions about their safety. The controversy exists because risk to humans must be extrapolated from animal data that demonstrate differences in toxicity by species, route of exposure, and age at exposure and because of persistent uncertainties in human exposure data. This report addresses sensitive endpoints of reproductive and developmental toxicity and the unique aspects of pediatric exposures to phthalates that generate concern. DEHP and DINP are used as specific examples to illustrate the controversy., ABBREVIATIONS. PVC, polyvinyl chloride; DEHP, diethylhexyl phthalate; DINP, diisononyl phthalate; MEHP, monoethylhexyl phthalate; ECMO, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; NOAEL, no observable adverse effect level; LOAEL, lowest observable adverse effect level; CERHR, [...]