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PTEN germline mutations account for ~ 1% of all autism spectrum disorder (ASD) cases, as well as ~ 17% of ASD patients with macrocephaly, making it one of the top ASD associated risk genes. Individuals with germline PTEN mutations receive the molecular diagnosis of PTEN Hamartoma Tumor Syndrome (PHTS), an inherited cancer predisposition syndrome, about 20–23% of whom are diagnosed with ASD. We generated forebrain organoid cultures from gene-edited isogenic human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) harboring a PTENG132D (ASD) or PTENM134R (cancer) mutant allele to model how these mutants interrupt neurodevelopmental processrf. Here, we show that the PTENG132D allele disrupts early neuroectoderm formation during the first several days of organoid generation. While organoids generated from PTENM134R hiPSCs remained morphologically similar to wild-type organoids during this early stage in development, we observed disrupted neuronal differentiation, radial glia positioning, and cortical layering in both PTEN mutant organoids at the later stage of 72 + days of development. Perifosine, an AKT inhibitor, reduced over activated AKT and partially corrected the abnormalities in cellular organization observed in PTENG132D organoids. Single cell RNAseq analyses on early-stage organoids revealed that genes related to neural cell fate was least enriched in PTENG132D mutant organoids, and AKT inhibition was capable of upregulating gene signatures related to neuronal cell fate and CNS maturation pathways. These findings demonstrate that different PTEN missense mutations can have profound impact on neurodevelopment at diverse stages which in turn may predispose PHTS individuals to ASD. Further study will shed light on the way to mitigate pathological impact of PTEN mutants on neurodevelopment by stage-specific manipulation of downstream PTEN signaling components.

Background PTEN, a syndromic autism spectrum disorder (ASD) risk gene, is mutated in approximately 10% of macrocephalic ASD cases. Despite the described genetic association between PTEN and ASD and ensuing studies, we continue to have a limited understanding of how PTEN disruption drives ASD pathogenesis and maintenance. Methods We derived neural stem cells (NSCs) from the dentate gyrus (DG) of Ptenm3m4 mice, a model that recapitulates PTEN-ASD phenotypes. We subsequently characterized the expression of stemness factors, proliferation, and differentiation of neurons and glia in Ptenm3m4 NSCs using immunofluorescent and immunoblotting approaches. We also measured Creb phosphorylation by Western blot analysis and expression of Creb-regulated genes with qRT-PCR. Results The m3m4 mutation decreases Pten localization to the nucleus and its global expression over time. Ptenm3m4 NSCs exhibit persistent stemness characteristics associated with increased proliferation and a resistance to neuronal maturation during differentiation. Given the increased proliferation of Ptenm3m4 NSCs, a significant increase in the population of immature neurons relative to mature neurons occurs, an approximately tenfold decrease in the ratio between the homozygous mutant and wildtype. There is an opposite pattern of differentiation in some Ptenm3m4 glia, specifically an increase in astrocytes. These aberrant differentiation patterns associate with changes in Creb activation in Ptenm3m4/m3m4 NSCs. We specifically observed loss of Creb phosphorylation at S133 in Ptenm3m4/m3m4 NSCs and a subsequent decrease in expression of Creb-regulated genes important to neuronal function (i.e., Bdnf). Interestingly, Bdnf treatment is able to partially rescue the stunted neuronal maturation phenotype in Ptenm3m4/m3m4 NSCs. Conclusions Constitutional disruption of Pten nuclear localization with subsequent global decrease in Pten expression generates abnormal patterns of differentiation, a stunting of neuronal maturation. The propensity of Pten disruption to restrain neurons to a more progenitor-like state may be an important feature contributing to PTEN-ASD pathogenesis. Graphical abstract

The human prion gene, PRNP , has two allelic forms that encode either a methionine or valine at codon 129. This polymorphism strongly influences the pathogenesis of prion disease. However, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We compared the conformation between wild-type human prion protein (rPrP C ) with either a valine or methionine at position 129, using a panel of monoclonal antibodies that are specific for epitopes along the entire protein. We found that rPrP C(129M) has a more exposed helix 1 region compared to rPrP C(129V) . Helix 1 is important in the aggregation process. Accordingly, rPrP C(129M) aggregates at a faster rate and forms more aggregate than rPrP C(129V) . In addition, by using a rPrP with a pathogenic mutation of five additional octapeptide repeat insertions, rPrP (129M)/10OR , as “seeds”, we showed that rPrP (129M)/10OR promotes the aggregation of rPrP C(129M) more efficiently than rPrP C(129V) . These findings provide a possible mechanism underlying the influence of residue 129 on human prion disease.

The normal PrP(C) (cellular prion protein) contains sLe(X) [sialyl-Le(X) (Lewis X)] and Le(X). sLe(X) is a ligand of selectins. To examine whether PrP(C) is a ligand of selectins, we generated three human PrP(C)-Ig fusion proteins: one with Le(X), one with sLe(X), and the other with neither Le(X) nor sLe(X). Only Le(X)-PrP(C)-Ig binds E-, L- and P-selectins. Binding is Ca(2+)-dependent and occurs with nanomolar affinity. Removal of sialic acid on sLe(X)-PrP(C)-Ig enables the fusion protein to bind all selectins. These findings were confirmed with brain-derived PrP(C). The selectins precipitated PrP(C) in human brain in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. Treatment of brain homogenates with neuraminidase increased the amounts of PrP(C) precipitated. Therefore the presence of sialic acid prevents the binding of PrP(C) in human brain to selectins. Hence, human brain PrP(C) interacts with selectins in a manner that is distinct from interactions in peripheral tissues. Alternations in these interactions may have pathological consequences.

Mutation in the prion gene, PRNP, accounts for approx. 10-15% of human prion diseases. However, little is known about the mechanisms by which a mutant prion protein (PrP) causes disease. We compared the biochemical properties of a wild-type human prion protein, rPrP(C) (recombinant wild-type PrP), which has five octapeptide-repeats, with two recombinant human prion proteins with insertion mutations, one with three more octapeptide repeats, rPrP(8OR), and the other with five more octapeptide repeats, rPrP(10OR). We found that the insertion mutant proteins are more prone to aggregate, and the degree and kinetics of aggregation are proportional to the number of inserts. The octapeptide-repeat and alpha-helix 1 regions are important in aggregate formation, because aggregation is inhibited with monoclonal antibodies that are specific for epitopes in these regions. We also showed that a small amount of mutant protein could enhance the formation of mixed aggregates that are composed of mutant protein and wild-type rPrP(C). Accordingly, rPrP(10OR) is also more efficient in promoting the aggregation of rPrP(C) than rPrP(8OR). These findings provide a biochemical explanation for the clinical observations that the severity of the disease in patients with insertion mutations is proportional to the number of inserts, and thus have implications for the pathogenesis of inherited human prion disease.

The conversion of the normal cellular prion protein, PrP C , into the protease-resistant, scrapie PrP Sc aggregate is the cause of prion diseases. We developed a novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) that is specific for PrP aggregate by screening 30 anti-PrP monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) for their ability to react with recombinant mouse, ovine, bovine, or human PrP dimers. One MAb that reacts with all four recombinant PrP dimers also reacts with PrP Sc aggregates in ME7-, 139A-, or 22L-infected mouse brains. The PrP Sc aggregate is proteinase K resistant, has a mass of 2,000 kDa or more, and is present at a time when no protease-resistant PrP is detectable. This simple and sensitive assay provides the basis for the development of a diagnostic test for prion diseases in other species. Finally, the principle of the aggregate-specific ELISA we have developed may be applicable to other diseases caused by abnormal protein aggregation, such as Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease.

We used different anti-prion protein (anti-PrP) monoclonal antibodies to capture either full-length or truncated PrP species and then used biotinylated lectin to compare the nature of the glycans on bound PrP species present in control, sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD), or variant CJD (vCJD) brains. When full-length PrP species in these three groups were compared, no significant difference in the binding of concanavalin A or Aleuria aurantia lectin was detected. However, the binding of Ricinus communis agglutinin I (RCA) to sCJD and vCJD samples was significantly increased. In contrast, when only truncated PrP species were compared, only vCJD samples had more RCA binding activity. Therefore, while most of the RCA binding activity in sCJD is restricted to the full-length PrP species, the RCA binding activity in vCJD is associated with truncated and full-length PrP species. Furthermore, the RCA binding activity in sCJD and vCJD samples is mostly associated with proteinase K-resistant PrP species, a known signature of infectious prion. Therefore, PrP species in sCJD and vCJD have dissimilar lectin immunoreactivity, which reflects differences in their N-linked glycans. These differences may account for the distinct phenotypes of sCJD and vCJD.

Although the key event in the pathology of prion diseases is thought to be the conversion of cellular prion protein (PrPC) to the protease-resistant scrapie species termed PrPSc, the factors that contribute to neurodegeneration in scrapie-infected animals are poorly understood. One probable determinant could be when the accumulation of PrPSc in infected brain overwhelms the ubiquitin–proteasome system and triggers the degenerative cascade. In the present study, it was found that in mouse brains infected with the ME7 scrapie strain, the level of ubiquitin protein conjugates increased significantly at ∼144 days post-infection (pi) when clinical signs first become apparent. This elevation correlated with the detection of protease-resistant PrPSc and a decline in two endopeptidase activities associated with proteasome function. However, ubiquitination of PrP was only detected at the terminal stage, 3 weeks after the development of clinical symptoms (∼165 days pi). These results suggest that ubiquitination of PrP is a late event phenomenon and this conjugation occurs after the formation of protease-resistant PrPSc. Whether this post-translational modification and the impairment of proteasome function are pivotal events in the pathogenesis of prion diseases remains to be determined. Copyright © 2004 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Normal cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) and decay-accelerating factor (DAF) are glycoproteins linked to the cell surface by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors. Both PrP(C) and DAF reside in detergent insoluble complex that can be isolated from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. However, these two GPI-anchored proteins possess different cell biological properties. The GPI anchor of DAF is markedly more sensitive to cleavage by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) than that of PrP(C). Conversely, PrP(C) has a shorter cell surface half-life than DAF, possibly due to the fact that PrP(C) but not DAF is shed from the cell surface. This is the first demonstration that on the surface of the same cell type two GPI-anchored proteins differ in their cell biological properties.

Current detection of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) relies on the proteolytic generation of a protease-resistant core from the scrapie isoform of prion protein (PrPSc) followed by immunoblotting. This process is non-quantitative, time-consuming, and technically demanding. Recently, an alternative in vitro test for TSE based on the differential extraction of brain homogenates using guanidine hydrochloride followed by DELFIA (Dissociation Enhanced Lanthanide FluoroImmunoAssay) has been developed. In the present study, this approach was adopted using a panel of anti-PrP monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) in conventional sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to investigate hamster and two distinct strains of mouse prion diseases. Although PrP species were present in both soluble and insoluble fractions from normal as well as TSE samples, only the PrP species in the insoluble fractions from the latter samples were protease-resistant. In addition, certain anti-PrP MAb pairs could distinguish the PrP species in infected brains from those in the normal samples. The ability to differentiate disease-associated PrP isoforms without proteinase K digestion could serve as a panacea for developing a reliable and rapid diagnostic test for prion diseases. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Overwhelming evidence supports the amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease that stipulates that the relative level of the 42 amino acid beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta(42)) in relationship to Abeta(40) is critical to the pathogenesis of the disease. While it is clear that the multi-subunit gamma secretase is responsible for cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) into Abeta(42) and Abeta(40), the exact molecular mechanisms regulating the production of the various Abeta species remain elusive. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, we replaced individual amino acid residues from positions 43 to 52 of Abeta with phenylalanine to examine the effects on the production of Abeta(40) and Abeta(42). All mutants, except for V50F, resulted in a decrease in total Abeta with a more prominent reduction in Abeta for residues 45, 48, and 51, following an every three residue repetition pattern. In addition, the mutations with the strongest reductions in total Abeta had the largest increases in the ratio of Abeta(42)/Abeta(40). Curiously, the T43F, V44F, and T48F mutations caused a striking decrease in the accumulation of membrane bound Abeta(46), albeit by a different mechanism. Our data suggest that initial cleavage of APP at the epsilon site is crucial in the generation of Abeta. The implicated sequential cleavage and an alpha-helical model may lead to a better understanding of the gamma-secretase-mediated APP processing and may also provide useful information for therapy and drug design aimed at altering Abeta production.

Mutation in the prion gene PRNP accounts for 10–15% of human prion diseases. However, little is known about the mechanisms by which mutant prion proteins (PrPs) cause disease. Here we investigated the effects of 10 different pathogenic mutations on the conformation and ligand-binding activity of recombinant human PrP (rPrP). We found that mutant rPrPs react more strongly with N terminus-specific antibodies, indicative of a more exposed N terminus. The N terminus of PrP contains a glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-binding motif. Binding of GAG is important in prion disease. Accordingly, all mutant rPrPs bind more GAG, and GAG promotes the aggregation of mutant rPrPs more efficiently than wild-type recombinant normal cellular PrP (rPrP C ). Furthermore, point mutations in PRNP also cause conformational changes in the region between residues 109 and 136, resulting in the exposure of a second, normally buried, GAG-binding motif. Importantly, brain-derived PrP from transgenic mice, which express a pathogenic mutant with nine extra octapeptide repeats, also binds more strongly to GAG than wild-type PrP C . Thus, several rPrPs with distinct pathogenic mutations have common conformational changes, which enhance binding to GAG. These changes may contribute to the pathogenesis of inherited prion diseases.

We have developed a sensitive in vitro assay for detecting disease-associated prion aggregates by combining an aggregation-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (AS-ELISA) with the fluorescent amplification catalyzed by T7 RNA polymerase technique (FACTT). The new assay, named aggregation-specific FACTT (AS-FACTT), is much more sensitive than AS-ELISA and could detect prion aggregates in the brain of mice as early as 7 days after an intraperitoneal inoculation of PrP Sc . However, AS-FACTT was still unable to detect prion aggregates in blood of infected mice. To further improve the detection limit of AS-FACTT, we added an additional prion amplification step (Am) and developed a third-generation assay, termed Am-A-FACTT. Am-A-FACTT has 100% sensitivity and specificity in detecting disease-associated prion aggregates in blood of infected mice at late but still asymptomatic stages of disease. At a very early stage, Am-A-FACTT had a sensitivity of 50% and a specificity of 100%. Most importantly, Am-A-FACTT also detects prion aggregates in blood of mule deer infected with the agent causing a naturally occurring prion disease, chronic wasting disease. Application of this assay to cattle, sheep, and humans could safeguard food supplies and prevent human contagion.

Infection with any one of three strains of mouse scrapie prion (PrP Sc ), 139A, ME7, or 22L, results in the accumulation of two underglycosylated, full-length PrP species and an N-terminally truncated PrP species that are not detectable in uninfected animals. The levels of the N-terminally truncated PrP species vary depending on PrP Sc strain. Furthermore, 22L-infected brains consistently have the highest levels of proteinase K (PK)-resistant PrP species, followed by ME7- and 139A-infected brains. The three strains of PrP Sc are equally susceptible to PK and proteases papain and chymotrypsin. Their protease resistance patterns are also similar. In sucrose gradient velocity sedimentation, the aberrant PrP species partition with PrP Sc aggregates, indicating that they are physically associated with PrP Sc . In ME7-infected animals, one of the underglycosylated, full-length PrP species is detected much earlier than the other, before both the onset of clinical disease and the detection of PK-resistant PrP species. In contrast, the appearance of the N-terminally truncated PrP species coincides with the presence of PK-resistant species and the manifestation of clinical symptoms. Therefore, accumulation of the underglycosylated, full-length PrP species is an early biochemical fingerprint of PrP Sc infection. Accumulation of the underglycosylated, full-length PrP species and the aberrant N-terminally truncated PrP species may be important in the pathogenesis of prion disease.

The phenotype of human prion diseases is influenced by the prion protein (PrP) genotype as determined by the methionine (M)/valine (V) polymorphism at codon 129, the scrapie PrP (PrP Sc ) type and the etiology. To gain further insight into the mechanisms of phenotype determination, we compared twodimensional immunoblot profiles of detergent insoluble and proteinase K-resistant PrP species in a type of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJDMM2), variant CJD (vCJD) and sporadic fatal insomnia (sFI). Full-length and truncated PrP forms present in the insoluble fractions were also separately analyzed. These three diseases were selected because they have the same M/M PrP genotype at codon 129 and the same type 2 PrP Sc , but different etiologies, also sCJDMM2 and sFI are sporadic, whereas vCJD is acquired by infection. We observed minor differences in the PrP detergent-insoluble fractions between sCJDMM2 and vCJD, although both differ in the corresponding fractions from sFI. We detected more substantial heterogeneity between sCJDMM2 and vCJD in the two-dimensional blots of the proteinase K-resistant PrP fraction suggesting that different PrP species are selected for conversion to proteinase K-resistant PrP in sCJDMM2 and vCJD. These differences are mostly, but not exclusively, due to variations in the type of the N-linked glycans. We also show that the over-representation of the highly glycosylated forms distinctive of the proteinase K-resistant PrP Sc of vCJD in onedimensional blots is due to differences in both the amount and the natures of the glycans. Overall, these findings underline the complexity of phenotypic determination in human prion diseases.

When recombinant and cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) binds copper, it acquires properties resembling the scrapie isoform (PrP(Sc)), namely protease resistance, detergent insolubility and increased beta sheet content. However, whether the conformations of PrP(C) induced by copper and PrP(Sc) are similar has not been studied in great detail. Here, we use a panel of seven monoclonal antibodies to decipher the epitopes on full-length mouse PrP(C) that are affected by exogenous copper, and to compare the antigenicity of the copper-treated full-length PrP(C) with the full-length PrP(Sc) present in scrapie-infected mouse brains. In the presence of copper, we found that epitopes along residues 115-130 and 153-165 become more accessible on PrP(C). These regions correspond to the two beta sheet strands in recombinant PrP and they were proposed to be important for prion conversion. However, when we compared the antibody-binding patterns between full-length PrP(C) with full-length PrP(Sc) and between copper-treated full-length PrP(C) with full-length PrP(Sc), antibody binding to residues 143-155 and 175-185 was consistently increased on PrP(Sc). Collectively, our results suggest that copper-treated full-length PrP(C) does not resemble full-length PrP(Sc), despite acquiring PrP(Sc)-like properties. In addition, since each full-length protein reacts distinctively to some of the antibodies, this binding pattern could discriminate between PrP(C) and PrP(Sc).