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Interaction of SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein with the ACE2 cell receptor is very crucial for virus attachment to human cells. Selected mutations in SARS-CoV-2 S-protein are reported to strengthen its binding affinity to mammalian ACE2. The N501T mutation in SARS-CoV-2-CTD furnishes better support to hotspot 353 in comparison with SARS-CoV and shows higher affinity for receptor binding. Recombination analysis exhibited higher recombination events in SARS-CoV-2 strains, irrespective of their geographical origin or hosts. Investigation further supports a common origin among SARS-CoV-2 and its predecessors, SARS-CoV and bat-SARS-like-CoV. The recombination events suggest a constant exchange of genetic material among the co-infecting viruses in possible reservoirs and human hosts before SARS-CoV-2 emerged. Furthermore, a comprehensive analysis of codon usage bias (CUB) in SARS-CoV-2 revealed significant CUB among the S-genes of different beta-coronaviruses governed majorly by natural selection and mutation pressure. Various indices of codon usage of S-genes helped in quantifying its adaptability in other animal hosts. These findings might help in identifying potential experimental animal models for investigating pathogenicity for drugs and vaccine development experiments.

Rotavirus A (RVA) causes viral gastroenteritis in humans and animals, including calves, piglets, and foals. The current study reports the genetic characterization of the full-length enterotoxin gene, NSP4, from caprine and ovine species. Upon characterizing eight full-length NSP4 genes by sequencing, it was found that the four caprine and three ovine RVAs NSP4 genes are of E2 genotype and the sole ovine RVA isolate was found to be of E1 genotype. In the sequence and phyloanalysis of the NSP4 gene the seven E2 genotypes clustered with bovine, human, and caprine isolates from India and Bangladesh, respectively. The E1 genotype of ovine RVA was closer to human RVA isolate from India. The nucleotide per cent identity analysis revealed that all E2 genotype strains of caprine and ovine species ranged from 88.4% to 90.4% and it was found common to both the reference human RVA isolates DS-1 and AU-1. Whereas, the E1 genotype ovine strain clustered with human RVA isolates with 93.1% nucleotide per cent identity. The RVA strains circulating in caprine and ovine populations may share a common origin which is usually found in artiodactyl species because humans share a common dwelling with animals. Future studies are needed to confirm these findings of their relationship with humans and large animals.

COVID-19 caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2 has gripped essentially all countries in the world, and has infected millions and killed hundreds of thousands of people. Several innovative approaches are in development to restrain the spread of SARS-CoV-2. In particular, BCG, a vaccine against tuberculosis (TB), is being considered as an alternative therapeutic modality. BCG vaccine is known to induce both humoral and adaptive immunities, thereby activating both nonspecific and cross-reactive immune responses in the host, which combined could effectively resist other pathogens including SARS-CoV-2. Notably, some studies have revealed that SARS-CoV-2 infectivity, case positivity, and mortality rate have been higher in countries that have not adopted BCG vaccination than in countries that have done so. This review presents an overview of the concepts underlying BCG vaccination and its nonspecific immuological effects and protection, resulting in ‘trained immunity’ and potential utility for resisting COVID-19.

The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of a microencapsulated probiotic as an adjunct therapy in rotavirus-positive diarrhea of neonatal calves that received supportive treatment or supportive along with microencapsulated probiotic treatment, for 5 days. We examined whether microencapsulated Lactobacillus acidophilus NCDC15 probiotic treatment in rotavirus-infected diarrhoetic calves led to faster resolution of diarrhea, amelioration of zinc-copper imbalance, improved the immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin G, and decreased the inflammatory markers in serum. Calves with rotavirus-positive diarrhea

Rotavirus A (RVA) infections are known to retard the piglets' growth and minimize the profit to the pig farming community. Between August 2014 and July 2017, in a cross-sectional study, we surveyed 13 organized pig farms located in the eight states of India representing northern, north-eastern and southern regions, to identify the risk factors associated with RVA infection in pre- and post-weaning piglets. Faecal samples (n = 411) comprising of non-diarrhoeic (n = 320) and diarrhoeic (n = 91) were collected and screened for RVA infection using VP6 gene-based RT-PCR. RVA positivity of 52.5% (168/320) in non-diarrhoeic and 59.3% (54/91) in diarrhoeic piglets was noticed. Further, 53.3% (120/225) and 54.8% (102/186) of the samples from pre- and post-weaned samples were positive for RVA, respectively. To note, no statistically significant association was noticed between RVA infection, health and weaning status. Additionally, a questionnaire-based survey was conducted to identify the risk factors for RVA infections in piglets. The analysis revealed that good ventilation (OR 0.2, 95% CI 0.15-0.39), use of deep well water (OR 0.2, 95% CI 0.13-0.43) and feeding of commercial feed (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.18-0.41) were associated with reduced risk of RVA infection compared with poor ventilation, use of shallow well water and feeding of own milled feed, respectively. Contrarily, mixed farms (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.26-3.37), use of heater or cooler (OR 5.9, 95% CI 3.74-9.30), sheds in different elevation (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.20-5.01) and weekly and occasional use of disinfectant for surface cleaning (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.12-2.96) were associated with higher RVA infection. Mitigating the risk factors might help in better health management of piglets and increase the economic return to pig farming community in the country.

A restricted-randomized, single-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted to examine whether immunomodulating dose of levamisole (LMS) can stimulate certain antiviral immune markers by measuring the concentrations of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), nitric oxide (NOx), and total immunoglobulin G (IgG); prevents the gut injury; and reduces fecal consistency and dehydration scores in rotavirus type A (RVA)-positive piglet diarrhea. The trial was executed between November 2015 and May 2016 in an institute owned experimental swine production farm. The naturally RVA-exposed diarrheic piglets were used in the study. The piglets born between November 2015 and May 2016, age group of 0 to 2 weeks and confirmed for RVA-positive diarrhea, were randomized to receive supportive treatment (ST) or ST along with levamisole (LMS + ST) at immunomodulating dose. Simultaneously, six piglets were randomly selected from healthy population and kept as placebo control. The primary outcome was reduction of fecal consistency and dehydration scores (≤ 1) over the trial period. The secondary outcome was reduction of concentration of gut injury marker and stimulation of immunomodulatory function. The LMS + ST treatment progressively improved the total leukocyte, neutrophil count, IgG concentration (p

Pygmy hogs (Porcula salvania) are the smallest and rarest wild suid. It is categorized as a Critically Endangered species as per the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature. This study reports the first detection of a single-stranded RNA virus species, Aichivirus C, belonging to the genus Kobuvirus (KobV) and the family Picornaviridae, in pygmy hogs. KobV species are identified as a cause of acute gastroenteritis among children in India. As of now, there exists no report on the detection of KobV in animals from India. We used a detection assay based on reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction for KobV screening in pygmy hogs from a conservation center in India. The 3D polymerase gene–based molecular analysis revealed KobV presence in the Indian wild suid, pygmy hogs. Of the 15 samples tested, three were found positive for picornaviruses and were negative for rotavirus A, rotavirus C, astrovirus, picobirnavirus and caliciviruses. Nucleotide-based sequence analysis of the partial 3D polymerase gene revealed close identity with porcine KobV from the Czech Republic (JX232619, 90.6%–91.6%) and Hungary (NC_011829, 89.8%–91.6%), wherein one of the current study strains clustered with the Czech Republic JX232619 strain in the phylogenetic tree. Further investigation of the role of KobV in health and disease of pygmy hogs is warranted.

Summary The clinical severity, rapid transmission and human losses due to coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid‐19) have led the World Health Organization to declare it a pandemic. Traditional epidemiological tools are being significantly complemented by recent innovations especially using artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning. AI‐based model systems could improve pattern recognition of disease spread in populations and predictions of outbreaks in different geographical locations. A variable and a minimal amount of data are available for the signs and symptoms of Covid‐19, allowing a composite of maximum likelihood algorithms to be employed to enhance the accuracy of disease diagnosis and to identify potential drugs. AI‐based forecasting and predictions are expected to complement traditional approaches by helping public health officials to select better response and preparedness measures against Covid‐19 cases. AI‐based approaches have helped address the key issues but a significant impact on the global healthcare industry is yet to be achieved. The capability of AI to address the challenges may make it a key player in the operation of healthcare systems in future. Here, we present an overview of the prospective applications of the AI model systems in healthcare settings during the ongoing Covid‐19 pandemic.

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In recent decades, several new diseases have emerged in different geographical areas, with pathogens including Ebola virus, Zika virus, Nipah virus, and coronaviruses (CoVs). Recently, a new type of viral infection emerged in Wuhan City, China, and initial genomic sequencing data of this virus do not match with previously sequenced CoVs, suggesting a novel CoV strain (2019-nCoV), which has now been termed severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Although coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is suspected to originate from an animal host (zoonotic origin) followed by human-to-human transmission, the possibility of other routes should not be ruled out., SUMMARY In recent decades, several new diseases have emerged in different geographical areas, with pathogens including Ebola virus, Zika virus, Nipah virus, and coronaviruses (CoVs). Recently, a new type of viral infection emerged in Wuhan City, China, and initial genomic sequencing data of this virus do not match with previously sequenced CoVs, suggesting a novel CoV strain (2019-nCoV), which has now been termed severe acute respiratory syndrome CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Although coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is suspected to originate from an animal host (zoonotic origin) followed by human-to-human transmission, the possibility of other routes should not be ruled out. Compared to diseases caused by previously known human CoVs, COVID-19 shows less severe pathogenesis but higher transmission competence, as is evident from the continuously increasing number of confirmed cases globally. Compared to other emerging viruses, such as Ebola virus, avian H7N9, SARS-CoV, and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), SARS-CoV-2 has shown relatively low pathogenicity and moderate transmissibility. Codon usage studies suggest that this novel virus has been transferred from an animal source, such as bats. Early diagnosis by real-time PCR and next-generation sequencing has facilitated the identification of the pathogen at an early stage. Since no antiviral drug or vaccine exists to treat or prevent SARS-CoV-2, potential therapeutic strategies that are currently being evaluated predominantly stem from previous experience with treating SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and other emerging viral diseases. In this review, we address epidemiological, diagnostic, clinical, and therapeutic aspects, including perspectives of vaccines and preventive measures that have already been globally recommended to counter this pandemic virus.

The technology-driven world of the 21st century is currently confronted with a major threat to humankind in the form of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of April 22, 2020, COVID-19 has claimed 169, 006 human lives and had spread to over 200 countries with more than 2,471,136 confirmed cases. The perpetually increasing figures associated with COVID-19 are disrupting the social and economic systems globally. The losses are unmatched and significantly higher compared to those from previously encountered pathogenic infections. Previously, two CoVs (SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome-CoV) affected the human population in 2002 and 2012 in China and Saudi Arabia, respectively. Based on genomic similarities, animal-origin CoVs, primarily those infecting bats, civet cats, and pangolins, were presumed to be the source of emerging human CoVs, including the SARS-CoV-2. The cohesive approach amongst virologists, bioinformaticians, big data analysts, epidemiologists, and public health researchers across the globe has delivered high-end viral diagnostics. Similarly, vaccines and therapeutics against COVID-19 are currently in the pipeline for clinical trials. The rapidly evolving and popular technology of artificial intelligence played a major role in confirming and countering the COVID-19 pandemic using digital technologies and mathematical algorithms. In this review, we discuss the noteworthy advancements in the mitigation of the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the etiological viral agent, comparative genomic analysis, population susceptibility, disease epidemiology, animal reservoirs, laboratory animal models, disease transmission, diagnosis using artificial intelligence interventions, therapeutics and vaccines, and disease mitigation measures to combat disease dissemination.

After the appearance of first cases of ‘pneumonia of unknown origin’ in the Wuhan city, China, during late 2019, the disease progressed fast. Its cause was identified as a novel coronavirus, named provisionally 2019-nCoV. Subsequently, an official name was given as SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2) by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) study group. The World Health Organization (WHO) named the Coronavirus disease-2019 as COVID-19. The epidemics of COVID-2019 have been recorded over 113 countries/territories/areas apart from China and filched more than 4292 humans, affecting severely around 1,18,326 cases in a short span. The status of COVID-2019 emergency revised by the WHO within 42 days from Public Health International Emergency (January 30, 2020) to a pandemic (March 11, 2020). Nonetheless, the case fatality rate (CFR) of the current epidemic is on the rise (between 2-4%), relatively is lower than the previous SARS-CoV (2002/2003) and MERS-CoV (2012) outbreaks. Even though investigations are on its way, the researchers across the globe have assumptions of animal-origin of current SARS-CoV-2. A recent case report provides evidence of mild COVID-2019 infection in a pet dog that acquired COVID-2019 infection from his owner in Hong Kong. The news on travellers associated spread across the globe have also put many countries on alert with the cancellation of tourist visa to all affected countries and postponement of events where international visits were required. A few diagnostic approaches, including quantitative and differential real-time polymerase chain reaction assays, have been recommended for the screening of the individuals at risk. In the absence of any selective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, re-purposed drugs are advocated in many studies. This article discourse the current worldwide situation of COVID-2019 with information on virus, epidemiology, host, the role of animals, effective diagnosis, therapeutics, preventive and control approaches making people aware on the disease outcomes.

The technology-driven world of the 21st century is currently confronted with a major threat to humankind, represented by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome, coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). As of now, COVID-19 has affected more than 6 million confirmed cases and took 0.39 million human lives. SARS-CoV-2 spreads much faster than its two ancestors, SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome-CoV (MERS-CoV), but has low fatality rates. Our analyses speculate that the efficient replication and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 might be due to the high-density basic amino acid residues, preferably positioned in close proximity at both the furin-like cleavage sites (S1/S2 and S2’) within the spike protein. Given the high genomic similarities of SARS-CoV-2 to bat SARS-like CoVs, it is likely that bats serve as a reservoir host for its progenitor. Women and children are less susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, while the elderly and people with comorbidities are more prone to serious clinical outcomes, which may be associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and cytokine storm. The cohesive approach amongst researchers across the globe has delivered high-end viral diagnostics. However, home-based point-of-care diagnostics are still under development, which may prove transformative in current COVID-19 pandemic containment. Similarly, vaccines and therapeutics against COVID-19 are currently in the pipeline for clinical trials. In this review, we discuss the noteworthy advancements, focusing on the etiological viral agent, comparative genomic analysis, population susceptibility, disease epidemiology and diagnosis, animal reservoirs, laboratory animal models, disease transmission, therapeutics, vaccine challenges, and disease mitigation measures.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) led to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic affecting nearly 71.2 million humans in more than 191 countries, with more than 1.6 million mortalities as of 12 December, 2020. The spike glycoprotein (S-protein), anchored onto the virus envelope, is the trimer of S-protein comprised of S1 and S2 domains which interacts with host cell receptors and facilitates virus-cell membrane fusion. The S1 domain comprises of a receptor binding domain (RBD) possessing an N-terminal domain and two subdomains (SD1 and SD2). Certain regions of S-protein of SARS-CoV-2 such as S2 domain and fragment of the RBD remain conserved despite the high selection pressure. These conserved regions of the S-protein are extrapolated as the potential target for developing molecular diagnostic techniques. Further, the S-protein acts as an antigenic target for different serological assay platforms for the diagnosis of COVID-19. Virus-specific IgM and IgG antibodies can be used to detect viral proteins in ELISA and lateral flow immunoassays. The S-protein of SARS-CoV-2 has very high sequence similarity to SARS-CoV-1, and the monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against SARS-CoV-1 cross-react with S-protein of SARS-CoV-2 and neutralize its activity. Furthermore, in vitro studies have demonstrated that polyclonal antibodies targeted against the RBD of S-protein of SARS-CoV-1 can neutralize SARS-CoV-2 thus inhibiting its infectivity in permissive cell lines. Research on coronaviral S-proteins paves the way for the development of vaccines that may prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection and alleviate the current global coronavirus pandemic. However, specific neutralizing mAbs against SARS-CoV-2 are in clinical development. Therefore, neutralizing antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2 S-protein are promising specific antiviral therapeutics for pre-and post-exposure prophylaxis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We hereby review the approaches taken by researchers across the world to use spike gene and S-glycoprotein for the development of effective diagnostics, vaccines and therapeutics against SARA-CoV-2 infection the COVID-19 pandemic.

Coronaviruses are the well-known cause of severe respiratory, enteric and systemic infections in a wide range of hosts including man, mammals, fish, and avian. The scientific interest on coronaviruses increased after the emergence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) outbreaks in 2002-2003 followed by Middle East Respiratory Syndrome CoV (MERS-CoV). This decade’s first CoV, named 2019-nCoV, emerged from Wuhan, China, and declared as ‘Public Health Emergency of International Concern’ on January 30th, 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO). As on February 4, 2020, 425 deaths reported in China only and one death outside China (Philippines). In a short span of time, the virus spread has been noted in 24 countries. The zoonotic transmission (animal-to-human) is suspected as the route of disease origin. The genetic analyses predict bats as the most probable source of 2019-nCoV though further investigations needed to confirm the origin of the novel virus. The ongoing nCoV outbreak highlights the hidden wild animal reservoir of the deadly viruses and possible threat of spillover zoonoses as well. The successful virus isolation attempts have made doors open for developing better diagnostics and effective vaccines helping in combating the spread of the virus to newer areas.

Porcine astroviruses (PAstVs) have extended their distribution globally and have a high prevalence; however, their clinical significance is still under investigation. Thus far, information about their prevalence and diversity in the Indian pig population is unknown. This study is the first report on the prevalence and genetic characterization of PAstVs in diarrhoeic piglets in India. From January 2013 to December 2017, 757 samples were screened using an RT-PCR assay and PAstV infection was detected in 17.6% (133/757) pigs. Of the 133 positive samples, 79 (59.4%) were positive for PAstV alone, whereas 54 (40.6%) were found to be co-infected with porcine rotavirus A (PoRVA). Phylogenetic analysis of RdRp/capsid gene region revealed high genetic heterogeneity among PAstV sequences, with a predominance of PAstV lineage 4 and detection of lineage 2. The lineage 4 PAstVs exhibited 61.2%-94.5% sequence similarity at the nucleotide level to other reported sequences, whereas lineage 2 strain shared 66.0%-71.6% sequence identity with cognate sequences of the same lineage. This is the first report on PAstV and circulation of lineages 4 and 2 in India. Further, phylogenetic analysis indicates a multiphyletic origin of PAstV strains and suggests cross-border circulation of PAstVs with a similar genetic configuration in Asian countries.

Since the unexpected discovery of picobirnaviruses (PBV) in 1988, they have been reported in many animals including mammals and birds, which comprises both terrestrial and marine species. Due to their divergent characteristics to other viral taxa they are classified into a new familyPicobirnaviridae. Although their pathogenicity and role in causing diarrhea still remains a question since they have been discovered in symptomatic and asymptomatic cases both. Recent studies employing state-of-art molecular tools have described their presence in various clinical samples, like stool samples from different mammals and birds, respiratory tracts of pigs and humans, sewage water, different foods,etc. Furthermore, their epidemiological status from different parts of the world in different hosts has also increased. Due to their diverse host and irregular host pattern their role in causing diarrhea remains alien. The heterogeneity nature can be ascribed to segmented genome of PBV, which renders them prone to continuous reassortment. Studies have been hampered on PBVs due to their non-adaptability to cell culture system. Here, we describe the molecular epidemiological data on PBVs in India and discusses the overall status of surveillance studies carried out till date in India.

Rotavirus (RV), is an etiological agent of acute infantile diarrhea in both humans and animals including poultry. Among the eight accepted species/types of RVs, RV-A is genetically and antigenically the most diverse. RV-A associated enteritis is a major problem in the weaning and post-weaning piglets. Due to high genetic variability in the antigenic regions, RV-A is thought to have high interspecies jumping probability. In this study, comparatively a large sized sample (n = 757) was screened, where the samples were collected from diarrheic porcine population of north (Uttar Pradesh), North eastern (Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh) and Southern states of India (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu). The VP6 gene based reverse-transcription (RT)-PCR based screening of the samples for RV-A identified 42.4% (321/757) positivity, where highest identification was from Uttar Pradesh 119 (37.07%), followed by 74 (23.05%), 34 (10.6%), 31 (9.65%), 21 (6.54%), 15 (4.67%), 11 (3.43%), 8 (2.49%), 3 (0.93%), 3 (0.93%) and 2 (0.62%) from Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, Kerala, Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, respectively. Percentage identity calculation of the VP6 gene sequences from different porcine RV-A revealed 77.1–97.3% identity within the Indian porcine RV-A strains of the current study. Phylodendrogram and percent identity based analysis of the amplified and sequenced full length VP6 gene confirmed the presence of new VP6 genotypes (I1 and I5). Although, there are reports of detection of porcine RV-A based on VP6 gene from India, no lineage/genotype based characterization is available for the target gene. Till date, only a single VP6 type (I2) has been confirmed from pig population of India. Here, the findings confirm the circulation of diverse RV-A strains in porcine population in India.

A non-blinded randomized clinical trial was conducted to assess the immunomodulatory potential of β-glucan (BG) in piglet diarrhoea associated with type A rotavirus infection. A total of 12 rotavirus-infected diarrheic piglets were randomly divided into two groups: wherein six rotavirus-infected piglets were treated with supportive treatment (ST) and other six rotavirus-infected piglets were treated with BG along with ST (ST-BG). Simultaneously, six healthy piglets were also included in the study which served as control. In rotavirus-infected piglets, marked increase of Intestinal Fatty Acid Binding Protein-2 (I-FABP2), nitric oxide (NOx), Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) concentrations and decrease of immunoglobulin G (IgG) were noticed compared to healthy piglets. The faecal consistency and dehydration scores were significantly higher in rotavirus-infected piglets than healthy piglets. The ST-BG treatment progressively reduced the I-FABP2 and increased the IgG concentrations over the time in rotavirus-infected piglets compared to piglets received only ST. A pronounced enhancement of NOx and IFN-γ concentrations was observed initially on day 3 and thereafter the values reduced on day 5 in ST-BG treated piglets in comparison to piglets which received only ST. Additionally, ST-BG treatment significantly reduced faecal consistency and dehydration scores on day 3 compared to ST in rotavirus-infected piglets. These findings point that BG represents a potential additional therapeutic option to improve the health condition and reduce the piglet mortality from rotavirus associated diarrhoea where porcine rotavirus vaccine is not available.

Porcine rotavirus type A (RVA) is a major cause of neonatal piglet mortality in India. The effect of the disease on haemogram and serum biochemical profile is not well established in piglets. Accordingly, we assessed the haemogram and serum biochemical profile in the neonatal piglet diarrhoea with RVA infection (n = 17). The diagnosis of RVA was confirmed using RNA-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (RNA-PAGE), commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Non-infected healthy piglets (n = 6) served as control. The concentrations of total protein, albumin, alanine amino transaminase (ALT), aspartate amino transaminase (AST), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine in serum were measured by spectrophotometric method. Haemogram was done in the blood using sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (Na2 EDTA) as anticoagulant. The mean values of total protein, albumin and globulin concentrations were significantly (P

Rotavirus D (RV-D) is gaining importance as a cause of gastroenteritis and runting and stunting syndrome (RSS) in poultry. To date, information is scarce on the molecular analysis of RV-D isolates worldwide. In this study, the VP7 gene, a major constituent of outer capsid structural protein, from a RV-D isolate (UKD48) obtained from Uttarakhand state was analyzed. Phylogenetically, the RV-D isolate was found to be closely related to a South Korean strain, and the nucleotide percent identity varied from 80.4–84.2% with other RV-D strains available globally. Furthermore, domain investigation within 21 aligned amino acid sequences of the VP7 gene affirmed that this gene has several domains: a conserved glycosylation site (N–I–T) having an important role in protein folding; a N-terminal signal peptide (“ITG”) for endoplasmic reticulum retention; and two hydrophobic sites for elucidating transmembrane portions, antigenic structures, and so forth. The findings suggest that the VP7 gene of the Indian RV-D isolate is genetically distinct from those of other avian RV-Ds. Although biological evidence is still needed to prove the functional characteristics of these domains in outer capsid structural proteins, the present study adds new knowledge and derives the need for further investigation.

Picobirnavirus (PBV) is recognized as a putative cause of diarrhea and respiratory illnesses. Although PBV has been reported in several mammalian (including humans) and avian host species, data pertaining to its presence in small ruminants are limited. We report, here, PBV infection in small ruminants (ovine and caprine), in India. From January 2015 to December 2017, 400 samples were tested for the presence of PBV, using an RT-PCR assay specific for the genome segment-2. The overall rate of PBV infection was 35.75% (143/400), being higher in caprines (42.35%, 83/196) than in ovines (29.42%, 60/204). Viral genogrouping showed the predominance of PBV genogroup I (GG-I; 53.15%, 76/173), the detection of genogroup II (GG-II; 3.49%, 5/143), a concomitant infection with GG-I and GG-II (38.47%, 55/143), and un-typeable strains (4.9%, 7/143). Of note, these PBV strains exhibit low sequence identity (11.2% to 70.7%) to other reported PBV isolates from humans and other animals. By phylogenetic analysis, camel PBV isolates from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the reference human GG-I strain (1-CHN-97) from China were found to be the nearest neighbors of PBV strains. Furthermore, sequence analysis revealed the possible appearance of a new genogroup/genetic cluster and the existence of high genetic heterogeneity in the circulating PBV strains. Although much remains to be understood about the epidemiology and impact of PBV, the present study demonstrates the high prevalence of GG-I, the detection of GG-II, and the possible emergence of new genogroup/genetic cluster in small ruminant populations in India.

In 1981, a new virus (virus 132) was described for the first time with morphological and biochemical similarities to rotaviruses (RVs), but without antigenic similarity to any of the previously known rotavirus groups. Subsequently, it was re-designated as D/132, and formed a new serogroup among rotaviruses, the group D rotavirus (RVD). Since their identification, RVs are the leading cause of enteritis and diarrhea in humans and various animal species, and are also associated with abridged growth, particularly in avian species. Recently, RVD has been suggested to play a role in the pathogenesis of runting and stunting syndrome (RSS), alongside other viruses such as reovirus, astrovirus, coronavirus, and others, all of which cause colossal economic losses to the poultry industry. RVD has been reported from several countries worldwide, and to date, only one complete genome sequence for RVD is available. Neither an immunodiagnostic nor a vaccine is available for the detection and prevention of RVD infection. Despite our growing understanding about this particular group, questions remain regarding its exact prevalence and pathogenecity, and the disease-associated annual losses for the poultry industry. Here, we describe the current knowledge about the identification, epidemiology, diagnosis, and prevention of RVD in poultry.

Background: Rotavirus C (RVC), a known etiological agent of diarrheal outbreaks, mainly inflicts swine population globally with sporadic incidence in human, cattle, ferret, mink and dog. Objective: To demonstrate the presence of RVC in Indian swine population and characterization of its selected structural (VP6) and non-structural (NSP4 and NSP5) genes. Methods: A total of 108 diarrheic samples from different regions of India were used. Isolated RNA was loaded onto polyacrylamide gel to screen for the presence of RVs through the identification of specific electrophoretic genomic migration pattern. To characterize the RVC strains, VP6 gene and NSP4 and NSP5 genes were amplified, sequenced and analyzed. Results: Based on VP6 gene specific diagnostic RT-PCR, the presence of RVC was confirmed in 12.0% (13/108) piglet fecal specimens. The nucleotide sequence analysis of VP6 gene, encoding inner capsid protein, from selected porcine RVC (PoRVC) strains revealed more than 93% homologies to human RVC strains (HuRVC) of Eurasian origin. These strains were distant from hitherto reported PoRVCs and clustered with HuRVCs, owning I2 genotype. However, the two non-structural genes, i.e. NSP4 and NSP5, of these strains were found to be of swine type, signifying a re-assortment event that has occurred in the Indian swine population. Conclusion: The findings indicate the presence of human-like RVC in Indian pigs and division of RVC clade with I2 genotype into further sub-clades. To the best of our knowledge, this appears to be the first report of RVC in Indian swine population. Incidence of human-like RVC VP6 gene in swine supports its subsequent zoonotic prospective.

The appreciaƟve progress in our understanding of the host defenc e mecha‐ nisms through innate and adapƟve immune systems has led us to improve therapeuƟc protocols through the inflecƟon of immune factors. Amidst plethora of paƩern recogniƟon receptors (PRRs), the Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) have received substanƟal consideraƟon as potenƟal regulator and controller of the immune response th rough their pathogen‐associated mo‐ lecular paƩerns (PAMPs). The finding that endogenous ligands, microbial consƟtuents, syntheƟc components are recognized by TLRs, raised interest in these receptors as potenƟal targets for the development of new therapies for mulƟple diseases. The TLRs are among the rare target s which are now a days becoming commercially available for treatment of viral diseases and the success has been achieved with imiquimod (TLR7) for human papilloma/ warts treatment. Numerous other therapeuƟcs targeƟng the TLRs are under pre‐clinical and clinical trials. The novel advances in TLR research shall ex‐ pound their funcƟon s and prospecƟve therapeuƟc applicaƟons. This review updates the usages of these innate immunomodulators in combaƟng various viral frailƟes describing in brief the anƟ‐viral regimens and their potenƟal applicaƟons for safeguarding health of humans as well as animals. 1. IntroducƟon Innate immune system, an indispensable compo‐ nent for the host existence, subsists as the primary defence by retorƟng the microbial threats (Akira and Takeda, 2004). On microbial exposure, the in‐ nate immune system employs immune factors to the locaƟon and actuates a number of processes to ascertain the source of contagion and it s conse‐ quent removal. Once acƟvated, it also triggers the adapƟve immune system to achieve complete im‐

All over the world, children and adults are severely affected by acute gastroenteritis, caused by one of the emerging enteric pathogens, rotavirus C (RVC). At present, no extensive surveillance program is running for RVC in India, and its prevalence is largely unknown except cases of local outbreaks. Here, we intended to detect the presence of RVC in diarrheic children visiting or admitted to hospitals in Haldwani (state of Uttarakhand, India), a city located in the foothills of the Himalayas. During 2010–2013, we screened 119 samples for RVC by an RVC VP6 gene-specific RT-PCR. Of these, 38 (31.93%) were found positive, which is higher than the incidence rates reported so far from India. The phylogenetic analysis of the derived nucleotide sequences from one of the human RVC (HuRVC) isolates, designated as HuRVC/H28/2013/India, showed that the study isolate belongs to genotype I2, P2 and E2 for RVC structural genes 6 and 4 (VP6, and VP4) and non-structural gene 4 (NSP4), respectively. Furthermore, the VP6 gene of HuRVC/H28/2013/India shows the highest similarity to a recently-reported human-like porcine RVC (PoRVC/ASM140/2013/India, KT932963) from India suggesting zoonotic transmission. We also report a full-length NSP4 gene sequence of human RVC from India. Under the One-health platforms there is a need to launch combined human and animal RVC surveillance programs for a better understanding of the epidemiology of RVC infections and for implementing control strategies.Reoviridae, possess 11 double-stranded segments of RNA that encode six structural viral proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4, VP6, VP7) and five/six non-structural proteins (NSP1–NSP5/6) [7]. Based on the antigenic properties of the major inner capsid protein (VP6), RVs are subdivided into eight well-characterized species (A–H) and two putative species viz. I and J [8–10]. Humans and other mammalian species are affected by species A, B, C and H rotaviruses and birds by species D, F and G, and species E has been reported exclusively in pigs [7,8,11–17]. The newly-proposed species I is reported in dogs [18] and cats [19], whereas species J is found in bats [10].