Search

Isoprene is a chemical compound emitted naturally by soil, microorganisms, plants, and animals into the atmosphere. But plants are the largest emission source, and the amount of emission depends on plant species, weather conditions, and environmental conditions, including exposure to environmental stresses such as heat and drought. Isoprene is very reactive in the atmosphere and is involved in atmospheric physicochemical processes that can impact atmospheric chemistry, air quality, and regional climate. Quantification and understanding of the atmospheric processes influenced by isoprene result from a combination of observational experiments and estimates obtained from computational models. However, only a few long-term observational experiments have been conducted in the largest source of isoprene to the global atmosphere – the Amazon rainforest, and there are still uncertainties in the model estimates. Recent experiments have also shown that the models have greater uncertainty when estimating intra- and inter-annual variations in isoprene. This study aimed to improve our understanding of isoprene emission from a central Amazonian site by considering biological and environmental factors influencing emission on intra- and interannual time scales. By combining observational datasets, we adapted a widely used computational model of isoprene emission to observed conditions in the field. Our observations indicated that isoprene emission was not as high as the model estimated when the forest experienced environmental stress, such as heat and drought, in the 2015 El-niño year. In addition, observations revealed that the model performed well when diurnal variations were analyzed but not when long-term variations occurred. The performance for estimating intra- and inter-annual isoprene emission improved when the model was modified on two biological factors – (i) the amount of different leaf ages throughout the year and (ii) the emission rates of these different leaf ages. This shows that isoprene emission estimates can be improved when biological processes are mechanistically incorporated into the model.

The contribution of vegetation to the South American carbon balance is critical for understanding the regional dynamics in net carbon exchange. Of particular interest is the role of the Amazon region as a sink or source of carbon to the atmosphere. Recent evidence indicate a weakening of the Amazon carbon sink, and when taking fires into account, the region represents a source of carbon to the atmosphere. In this study we use a regional atmospheric inversion system together with data from the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory (ATTO) and airborne profiles of CO2, to constrain the Net Biome Exchange (NBE) in tropical South America. At the domain-wide scale we find that the atmospheric observations can constrain 64% of the land mass, with uncertainty reductions in most of the Amazon region, and the adjacent Cerrado and Caatinga biomes. Furthermore, we provide a sub-regional-specific analysis showing the effect of assimilating the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory CO2 time series on the mean seasonal cycle of NBE for four areas within the Amazon, the Cerrado and the Caatinga. An emerging sink-source gradient between the Amazon region (sink) and the integrated effect of the Cerrado and Caatinga (source) is found, but the source is located in the boundaries and outside the eastern border of the legal Amazon. Optimized NBE estimates at regional and subregional scales are shown and the importance of the continuous measurements at ATTO is highlighted. Finally, we indicate the areas with a limited data constraint in our system and conclude that the observational network has to be further expanded for reducing the remaining uncertainty in top-down inverse approaches for this region.

The ATTO (Amazon Tall Tower Observatory) tower is a 325m tall tower located in the middle of the pristine Amazon rainforest. Since 2022, continuous greenhouse gas concentrations at different heights (4m, 42m, 81m, 150m, 273m, 321m) are monitored by use of a Spectronus FTIR-spectrometer, measuring CO2, CH4, CO, N2O and del13CO2 hourly, compliant to WMO/GAW standards. This unique measurement system is the first set up which measures greenhouse gases continuously until 325m above a tropical rainforest, which fill an important gap in the global continous observation network. The measurements can be used for regional and global modelling, and can be used for biosphere-atmosphere exchange flux estimates. In this presentation, we will show the main observations of the first year of data collection, and will present the typical daily cycles observed for the different gases at different heights.

The recent development and improvement of commercially available laser-based spectrometers have expanded onsite continuous water vapor (H2O) stable isotope composition (e.g. δ18O, δ17O and δ2H) measurements in a variety of sites across the world in the last decade. However, we still lack continuous observations in the Amazon basin region, a region that significantly influences atmospheric and hydrological cycles on local to global scales.The Amazon Tall Tower Observatory (ATTO) site is located in well-preserved central Amazon upland rainforest. In August 2022, a commercial cavity-ring down (CRDS) analyzer (L2140-i model, Picarro, Inc., USA) was installed to continuously measure water vapor isotope compositions at four levels (79, 38, 24, and 4 m above ground) of the 80 m walk-up tower. Also, deuterium excess (hereinafter called d-excess; d-excess = δ2H–8δ18O) was assessed to trace processes that contribute to diel variation in atmospheric moisture inside and above canopy.During the dry season, d-excess generally decreased during the nighttime, reaching minimum values at 6 am to 8 am local time (LT), followed by an increase to maximum values at 12 pm to 4 pm. The diel d-excess variation indicates that atmospheric entrainment occurred in the early morning and evapotranspiration was a dominant moisture source in the afternoon. Further results will be analyzed and discussed in the presentation.

Methane (CH4) is one of the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Despite its importance, natural sources of methane, such as tropical wetlands and termites, are still not well understood and a large source of uncertainty in the tropical CH4 budget. The Amazon rainforest is a key region for the (global) CH4 budget but, due to its remote location, local CH4 concentration and flux measurements are still rare.Fieldsite ZF2 (60 km NW of Manaus, Brazil) is located in pristine tropical rain forest. At this fieldsite, a Spectronus FTIR-analyzer (measuring CO2, CO, CH4, N2O & δ13CO2) was installed at the foot of the K34 tower, set up to measure different heights above and below the canopy continuously. In addition, by use of a Los Gatos portable analyzer (measuring CO2 & CH4), additional semi-continuous concentration measurements were performed at the valley tower (studying the nighttime build up of valley CH4), above the igarapé (capturing the CH4 ebullition bubbles leaving the water surface), and on the plateau (studying the spatial horizontal heterogeneity of CH4 concentrations within the canopy). Furthermore, the portable analyzer was used for soil, water, termite mound, and termites flux measurements.By combining tower and flux chamber measurements, the role and magnitude of different ecosystem sources could be assessed. We observed that, while soils in the valley are a small source of CH4 (0.1 to 0.2 nmol CH4 m-2 s-1), overall the soils of this ecosystem are expected to be a net CH4 sink (-0.3 to -0.5 nmol m-2 s-1 ). Estimated total ecosystem CH4 flux, based on nighttime concentration analyses of the tower data, indicate that the ecosystem is a net CH4 source (~1 to 2 nmol CH4 m-2 s-1). We propose that the net CH4 emission of the ecosystem is driven by local emitting hotspots, such as the valley stream and standing water, termites and termite mounds (~1 nmol CH4 m-2 s-1), anoxic soil spots and decaying dead wood.

This study combines ground-based gas phase, particle, and rainfall measurements at the ATTO site to study the impact of rainfall events on greenhouse and reactive gas concentrations and discuss how this process is relevant for producing new particles. Measurements of CO2, CH4, CO, O3, NO, and NO2 concentrations were collected from the surface to 79m using a tower at the ATTO site in the central Amazon forest northeast of Manaus, Brazil. Particle size distribution was measured by an SMPS and rainfall by a rain gauge at the top of the tower. Data collection started in 2012, and this analysis covered the period up to 2020. The 30-minute interval dataset was used to study how convective events modify the concentration of these gases. During the rainfall events, CO2, CO, and CH4 concentrations decrease, though CH4 varies less with height than CO and CO2. The daily cycle of NO2 presents an interesting characteristic showing distinct daily evolution for the concentration in the upper and lower levels. The decrease in NO2 concentration in the upper level and the increase near the surface in the afternoon, which is the typical time of rainfall events, indicate that a specific process occurs near the surface. With the joint analysis of gas-phase observations with ultrafine particles and rainfall data, it was possible to evaluate the interesting physical-chemical processes occurring during the rainfall events that might be important for particles nucleation. The time of rainfall events was defined as the first-time rain rate reaching 3 mm/hours, a typical value of the beginning of convective rainfall events. Interestingly, during rainfall events, there is a significant injection of O3 above and inside the canopy, and at this moment, its concentrations can increase by 300%. At the same time, NO decreases, and NO2 increases its concentration, suggesting a reaction between NO and O3 forming NO2. The concentration of NO2 follows the increase in particle concentration smaller than 20nm. This result opens new perspectives on the role of new particle formation related to rain and vertical mixing in the Amazon.

The vegetation and soils of the Amazon contain large amounts of carbon that may be vulnerable to loss given ongoing climate and land use change in the Amazon basin. Previous studies predicted that the Amazon rainforest would start to act as a net carbon source to the atmosphere by 2030-2040, and that it has switched from being a sink to source over the last decade. Using data from eddy covariance and vertical carbon dioxide profile measurement systems installed at the 80 m walk-up tower in the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory (ATTO) site, located in well-preserved central Amazon upland rainforest, we assessed net ecosystem exchange (NEE), gross primary productivity (GPP), and ecosystem respiration (Reco) for the period 2014-2019. The NEE results indicate that the central Amazon upland rainforest was carbon neutral or a source during this 6-year period. Seasonal GPP variations were related to soil water availability and vapor pressure deficit. The strong 2015-2016 El Niño event decreased both GPP and Reco due to the unusually long dry period, but also contributed to carbon flux dynamics in post El Niño periods. In the 2017-dry season, we measured higher dry-season GPP compared with the other years, which we hypothesize was triggered by photosynthesis activation in sub-canopy and understory trees. This is supported by the minimum green crown fraction at upper canopy trees, indicating more light availability in lower canopy trees, and the higher fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, both recorded during the dry-season of 2017. Our results show that the ground-based measurement setup at ATTO is well suited to investigate the local carbon fluxes on seasonal to interannual time scales.

High-quality atmospheric CO2 measurements are sparse in Amazonia, but can provide critical insights into the spatial and temporal variability of sources and sinks of CO2. In this study, we present the first 6 years (2014–2019) of continuous, high-precision measurements of atmospheric CO2 at the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory (ATTO, 2.1°S, 58.9°W). After subtracting the simulated background concentrations from our observational record, we define a CO2 regional signal (urn:x-wiley:13541013:media:gcb15905:gcb15905-math-1802) that has a marked seasonal cycle with an amplitude of about 4 ppm. At both seasonal and inter-annual scales, we find differences in phase between urn:x-wiley:13541013:media:gcb15905:gcb15905-math-0001 and the local eddy covariance net ecosystem exchange (EC-NEE), which is interpreted as an indicator of a decoupling between local and non-local drivers of urn:x-wiley:13541013:media:gcb15905:gcb15905-math-0002. In addition, we present how the 2015–2016 El Niño-induced drought was captured by our atmospheric record as a positive 2σ anomaly in both the wet and dry season of 2016. Furthermore, we analyzed the observed seasonal cycle and inter-annual variability of urn:x-wiley:13541013:media:gcb15905:gcb15905-math-0004 together with net ecosystem exchange (NEE) using a suite of modeled flux products representing biospheric and aquatic CO2 exchange. We use both non-optimized and optimized (i.e., resulting from atmospheric inverse modeling) NEE fluxes as input in an atmospheric transport model (STILT). The observed shape and amplitude of the seasonal cycle was captured neither by the simulations using the optimized fluxes nor by those using the diagnostic Vegetation and Photosynthesis Respiration Model (VPRM). We show that including the contribution of CO2 from river evasion improves the simulated shape (not the magnitude) of the seasonal cycle when using a data-driven non-optimized NEE product (FLUXCOM). The simulated contribution from river evasion was found to be 25% of the seasonal cycle amplitude. Our study demonstrates the importance of the ATTO record to better understand the Amazon carbon cycle at various spatial and temporal scales.

High-quality atmospheric CO

Commercially available laser-based spectrometers permit continuous field measurements of water vapour (H2O) stable isotope compositions, yet continuous observations in the Amazon, a region that significantly influences atmospheric hydrological cycles on regional to global scales, are largely missing. In order to achieve accurate on-site observations in such conditions, these instruments will require regular on-site calibration, including for H2O concentration dependence ([H2O]-dependence) of isotopic accuracy.With the aim of conducting accurate continuous δ18O and δ2H on-site observation in the Amazon rainforest, we conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate the performance and determine the optimal [H2O]-dependence calibration strategy for two commercial cavity-ring down (CRDS) analysers (L1102i and L2130i models, Picarro, Inc., USA), coupled to our custom-built automated calibration unit. We particularly focused on the rarely investigated performance of the instruments at atmospheric H2O contents above 35,000 ppm, a value regularly reached at our site.The later analyser model (L2130i) had better precision and accuracy of δ18O and δ2H measurements with a less pronounced [H2O]-dependence compared to the older L1102i. The [H2O]-dependence calibration uncertainties did not significantly change with calibration intervals from 28 h up to 196 h, suggesting that one [H2O]-dependence calibration per week for the L2130i and L1102i analysers is enough. This study shows that with both CRDS analysers, correctly calibrated, we should be able to discriminate natural diel, seasonal and interannual signals of stable water vapour isotopes in a tropical rainforest environment.

Methane (CH4) is one of the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Despite its importance, natural sources of methane, such as tropical wetlands and termites, are still not well understood and a large source of uncertainty in the tropical CH4 budget. The Amazon rainforest is a key region for the (global) CH4 budget but, due to its remote location, continous CH4 concentration and flux measurements are still rare. The 50 m high K34 tower (field site ZF2) is located in a pristine ‘Terra Firme’ tropical forest region 60 km northwest of Manaus (Brazil), and is located next to a waterlogged valley, a possible location for anaerobic CH4 production. In October 2018, in addition to the existing EC CO2 system, an in-situ FTIR-analyzer (measuring CO2, CO, CH4, N2O and δ13CO2) was set up to measure tower profile concentrations, above and below the canopy, continuously. By analyses of vertical and temporal nighttime concentrations patterns, an emission estimate for all gases could be made, and an ecosystem emission of ~1 nmol CH4 m-2 s-1 was estimated. In addition, by use of different types of flux chambers, possible CH4 sinks and sources such as soils, trees, water and termite mounds were measured. By combining tower and flux chamber measurements, the role and magnitude of different ecosystem sources could be assessed. In this presentation, an overview of the measured CH4 forest concentrations and fluxes will be given.

The recent development and improvement of commercial laser-based spectrometers have expanded in situ continuous observations of water vapour (H2O) stable isotope ratios (e.g., δ18O, δ2H, etc.) in a variety of sites worldwide. However, we still lack continuous observations in the Amazon, a region that significantly influences atmospheric and hydrological cycles on local to global scales. In order to achieve accurate on-site observations, commercial water isotope analysers require regular in situ calibration, including H2O concentration dependence ([H2O]-dependence) of isotopic accuracy. Past studies have assessed [H2O]-dependence for air with H2O concentrations up to 35,000 ppm, a value that is frequently surpassed in tropical rainforest settings like the central Amazon where we plan continuous observations. Here we investigated the performance of two commercial analysers (L1102i and L2130i models, Picarro, Inc., USA) for measuring δ18O and δ2H in atmospheric moisture at four different H2O levels from 21,500 to 41,000 ppm. These H2O levels were created by a custom-built calibration unit designed for regular in situ calibration. Measurements on the newer analyser model (L2130i) had better precision for δ18O and δ2H and demonstrated less influence of H2O concentration on the measurement accuracy at each moisture level compared to the older L1102i. Based on our findings, we identified the most appropriate calibration strategy for [H2O]-dependence, adapted to our calibration system. The best strategy required using two pairs of a two-point calibration with four different H2O concentration levels. The smallest uncertainties in calibrating [H2O]-dependence of isotopic accuracy of the two analysers were achieved using a linear-surface fitting method and a 28 h calibration interval, except for the δ18O accuracy of the L1102i analyser for which the cubic fitting method gave best results. The uncertainties in [H2O]-dependence calibration did not show any significant difference using calibration intervals from 28 h up to 196 h; this suggested that one [H2O]-dependence calibration per week for the L2130i and L1102i analysers is sufficient.

A plant growth system for crop production under microgravity is part of a life supporting system designed for long-duration space missions. A plant growth in soil in space requires the understanding of water movement in soil void spaces under microgravity. Under 1G-force condition, on earth, water movement in porous media is driven by gradients of matric and gravitational potentials. Under microgravity condition, water movement in porous media is supposed to be driven only by a matric potential gradient, but it is still not well understood. We hypothesized that under microgravity water in void spaces of porous media hardly moved comparing in void spaces without obstacles because the concave surfaces of the porous media hindered water movement. The objective of this study was to investigate water movement on the convex surfaces of porous media under microgravity. We conducted parabolic flight experiments that provided 20–25 s of microgravity at the top of a parabolic flight. We observed water movement in void spaces in soil-like porous media made by glass beads and glass spheres (round-bottomed glass flasks) in the different conditions of water injection under microgravity. Without water injection, water did not move much in neither glass beads nor glass spheres. When water was injected during microgravity, water accumulated in contacts between the particles, and the water made thick fluid films on the particles surface. When the water injection was stopped under microgravity, water was held in the contacts between the particles. This study showed that water did not move upward in the void spaces with or without the water injection. In addition, our results suggested that the difficulty of water movement on the convex (i.e. particle surfaces) might result in slower water move in porous media under microgravity than at 1G-force.

Methane (CH4) is the second most important long-lived anthropogenic atmospheric greenhouse gas. Despite its importance, natural sources of methane, such as tropical wetlands, are still not well understood and a large source of uncertainty to the global CH4 budget. The Amazonian rain forest is estimated to hold 90-120 Pg of carbon, which is approximately 14-27% of the carbon stored in vegetation worldwide. The region is characterized by high precipitation rates and large wetlands, and it has been estimated that the Amazon basin emits 7% of the annual total CH4 emissions. Due to its remote location, micro-meteorological measurements are rare and absent for other gases than CO2.The 50 m high K34 tower (field site ZF2) is located in a pristine tropical forest region 60 km northwest of Manaus (Brazil), and is located next to a waterlogged valley, a possible location for anaerobic CH4 production. In October 2018, in addition to the existing EC CO2 system, a Relaxed Eddy Accumulation (REA) system was set up at this tower, connected to an in-situ FTIR-analyzer. This set up continually measures fluxes and concentration profiles of CO2, CO, CH4, N2O and δ13CO2. In addition, CH4, CO2, and N2O uptake and emission processes were studied by flux chamber measurements in the footprint of the REA tower, focusing on different possible sources (soil, stream, trees and termites). In this presentation, an overview of the measured CH4 and N2O forest concentrations and fluxes will be shown.

Amazon rainforests and soils contain large amounts of carbon, which is under pressure from ongoing climate and land use change in the Amazon basin. It is estimated that methane (CH4), an important greenhouse gas, is largely released from the flooded wetlands of the Amazon, but the trends and balances of CH4 in the Amazon rainforest are not yet well understood. In addition, the change in atmospheric CH4 concentration is strongly associated with a change in carbon monoxide (CO) concentration, often caused by the human-induced combustion of biomass that usually peaks during dry season. Understanding the long-term fluctuations in the fluxes of greenhouse gases in the Amazon rainforest is essential for improving our understanding of the carbon balance of the Amazon rainforest.Since March 2012, we have continuously measured atmospheric CO2/CH4/CO concentrations at five levels (79, 53, 38, 24, and 4 m a.g.l.) using two wavelength-scanned cavity ring-down spectroscopy analyzers (G1301 and G1302, Picarro Inc., USA), which are automatically calibrated on site every day. In addition, we measured the CO2 flux by the eddy covariance method at the same tower. We estimated the CO2/CH4/CO fluxes by combining the vertical profile of the CO2/CH4/CO concentrations with the flux gradient method. Our results generally show no major difference in CO2 flux between the wet and dry seasons except for year 2017, when an elevated CO2 uptake was documented during the dry season despite the lowest precipitation between 2014 and 2018. The CH4 flux showed the largest CH4 emission during the dry season in year 2016. Further results will be analyzed and discussed in the presentation.

Although bubble ebullition through water in rice paddy fields dominates direct methane (CH4) emissions from paddy soil to the atmosphere in tropical regions, the temporal changes and regulating factors of this ebullition are poorly understood. Bubbles in a submerged paddy soil also contain high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), implying that CO2 ebullition may occur in addition to CH4 ebullition. We investigated the dynamics of CH4 and CO2 ebullition in tropical rice paddy fields using an automated closed chamber installed between rice plants. Abrupt increases in CH4 concentrations occurred by bubble ebullition. The CO2 concentration in the chamber air suddenly increased at the same time, which indicated that CO2 ebullition was also occurring. The CH4 and CO2 emissions by bubble ebullition were correlated with falling atmospheric pressure and increasing soil surface temperature. The relative contribution of CH4 and CO2 ebullitions to the daily total emissions was 95–97% and 13–35%, respectively.