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Abstract The investigation of the relationship between pro-environmental behaviour and the determinants of natural environment sustainability is increasing; however, the heterogeneous effects of these determinants remain unclear. Based on large-scale original cross-sectional data (100,804 observations) from 37 countries, this study investigated the average and heterogeneous effects of socioeconomic, demographic, subjective, and psychological well-being characteristics on individuals’ pro-environmental behaviour using quantile regression. The results confirmed that, on average, a positive association existed between subjective well-being, knowledge of environmental issues, educational attainment, life satisfaction, mental health, positive emotions, and pro-environmental behaviour engagement. Importantly, heterogeneous effects were confirmed in the majority of determinants, including knowledge of environmental issues, education, number of children, life satisfaction, income, negative and positive emotions, and mental health. Given the heterogeneous effect of the determinants, the results suggest that overall better characteristics, including knowledge level, educational attainment, well-being, and family structure, are associated with better pro-environmental behaviour engagement among individuals, contributing to creating an eco-surplus society.

Abstract This study aimed to investigate whether global air pollution harms human morals beyond physiological and psychological health. To accomplish this, we conducted an original survey involving over 80,000 individuals across 30 countries, inquiring about their recent perceived unethical behaviors. Through regression analyses, we identified global evidence of a positive correlation between local monthly average concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and perceptions of unethical behavior. This finding suggests that air pollution may potentially elicit unethical behavior through a complex response mechanism. It is noteworthy that the impact of air pollution on the inclination to perceive unethical behavior is heterogeneous across categories of unethical behavior and countries. For example, the effects of increasing air pollution concentrations vary even within the same European country: an increase in NO2 concentration in Greece and the Netherlands augments the inclination to perceive fatal unethical behaviors such as murder, terrorism, and suicide, while in Germany, NO2 concentration diminishes the inclination to perceive the same types of unethical behaviors. Overall, the societal costs of air pollution may be even more far-reaching than previously acknowledged, and further research is necessary to unveil the intricate response mechanisms underlying this issue.

With global economic growth, the burden on the natural environment is severe, and more and more attention is paid to sustainable development that enhances the economic growth and sustainability of the natural environment. This study aims to show the concern of global citizens regarding the natural environment and household income. It used worldwide individual interview data from 149 countries between 2007 and 2021, with 2,450,043 observations (Gallup World Poll surveys) and an original large-scale internet- and face-to-face-survey from 37 nations with 100,956 observations. Using a binary logit regression model, this study also analyzes public sentiment regarding who should bear the financial burden for environmental conservation. We found that 60 % of citizens showed that their current income provides a comfortable life; on the other hand, 49 % of the respondents were dissatisfied with conservation of the natural environment. The satisfaction with household income was much greater than satisfaction with natural environmental conservation, leaving space for improvement in environmental stringency. For citizens’ preferences regarding financial responsibility, the government and companies are expected to afford conservation costs.

Voluntary carbon offset markets play an important role in climate change mitigation by deploying technologies in order of lowest abatement cost. The objective of this study is to identify the key drivers of changes in the volume of carbon credits issued in voluntary registry offset markets from 2006 to 2020 using a decomposition analysis framework. The results show that the volume of issued carbon credits related to forestry and land use increased from 2006 to 2015 due to priority increases and scale expansions in REDD+ projects. In addition, the reasons for the priority changes in carbon credits issued varied according to the scale of carbon offset programs in each region. The comparison of scale effect and carbon offset program priority is a useful tool for understanding changes in carbon credits issued according to project technology and region. The very rapid increase in forestry carbon credits issued does however pose important policy implications given it has been accompanied by widespread indications of poor governance and questionable outcomes in terms of CO2 reduction. In light of the IPCC's reliance on carbon credits the need for thoroughgoing policy reform is underlined.

Abstract Natural features in living environments can help to reduce stress and improve mental health. Different land types have disproportionate impacts on mental health. However, the relationships between mental health and land cover are inconclusive. In this study, we aim to accurately fit the relationships, estimate the impacts of land cover change on mental health, and demonstrate the global spatial variability of impacts. In the analysis, we show the complex relationships between mental health and eight land types based on the random forest method and Shapley additive explanations. The accuracy of our model is 67.59%, while the accuracy of the models used in previous studies is usually no more than 20%. According to the analysis results, we estimate the average effects of eight land types. Due to their scarcity in living environments, shrubland, wetland, and bare land have larger impacts on mental health. Cropland, forest, and water could improve mental health in high-population-density areas. The impacts of urban land and grassland are mainly negative. The current land cover composition influences people’s attitudes toward a specific land type. Our research is the first study that analyzes data with geographical information by random forest and explains the results geographically. This paper provides a novel machine learning explanation method and insights to formulate better land-use policies to improve mental health.

Abstract Forests play a crucial role in mitigating climate change and reducing emissions as a major carbon sink. However, its value in removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is always underestimated in natural capital (NC) accounting and sustainability assessments. This study predicted Japan’s forest CO2 removal by afforestation and forest management and its monetary value until 2042 from national to gridded level, with statistical data and complementary satellite data products, and explored how that CO2 removal will contribute to sustainable development under the inclusive wealth (IW) framework. The results show that: (1) the annual CO2 removal by forests has the potential to offset 15.3% of the emission and increase NC by 6.8% in Japan, significantly contributing to carbon neutrality and IW growth; (2) the total CO2 removal in exiting forests will peak at around 2030 and then decrease, but expanding afforestation could offset that decrease in later years; (3) the spatial distribution patterns of IW and forest CO2 removal are opposite. This indicates a national carbon trading market could create new wealth for rural communities where vast forests exist, and then effectively balance the inequal urban–rural development in Japan. The explicit spatial information of this study could provide valuable information for differentiating policy priorities of forestry planning and sustainable development in different local communities.

Abstract Hot springs have been used for a variety of purposes, including the treatment and amelioration of illness and recreation. Japan has ten different types of therapeutic springs (described here as spa types), which are traditionally believed to have different efficacy. However, more research must be conducted to determine how they affect healthy people. Therefore, this study focused on the gut microbiota and aimed to investigate changes in the gut microbiota in healthy people after bathing in different spa types. Using Beppu's hot springs (simple, chloride, bicarbonate, sulfur, and sulfate types), 136 healthy Japanese adults living in the Kyushu area participated in the study and bathed in the same hot spring for seven days. Fecal samples were collected before and after the 7-day bathing period, and the relative abundance of the gut microbiota was determined by 16S rRNA sequencing. The results showed that the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium bifidum increased significantly after seven consecutive days of bathing in the bicarbonate spring. Significant increases in other gut microbiota were also observed after bathing in simple, bicarbonate, and sulfur springs. These results suggest that bathing in different hot springs may affect the gut microbiota in healthy individuals differently.

Abstract Measuring a country’s sustainable development by its gross domestic product (GDP) is insufficient to capture the loss of capital that determines future human welfare. To address this, we propose the inclusive wealth index, which integrates biophysical quantities and monetary values of natural, human, and produced capital. We analyzed the level of Inclusive Wealth in 163 countries over the past 30 years to assess sustainable development goals (SDGs) going beyond GDP. Global wealth has suffered significant losses in natural capital, with the biased accumulation of capital assets leading to unsustainable and unequal development. In low-income countries, soaring population levels and biased capital investments exacerbate the depletion of natural capital. Our results underscore the critical role of natural capital and inclusive capital management in sustainable development. Policymakers can use this information to make capital investments in their economies and promote recovery from COVID-19 that aligns with the SDGs, the Paris Climate Agreement, and initiatives beyond GDP.

Stromal cells play a critical role in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer (BC), as they are recruited by tumor cells and regulate the metastatic spread. Though high expression of α-parvin, a member of the parvin family of actin-binding proteins, is reported to be associated with a poor prognosis and metastasis in several cancers, its role in carcinogenesis has not been thoroughly explored. Therefore, we aimed to examine the expression of α-parvin in BC patients by compartmentalizing and quantifying tissues to determine whether α-parvin can be a potential therapeutic target. We performed immunohistochemical (IHC) staining of α-parvin in BC tissues, and the IHC scores were calculated in the overall tissue, stroma, and epithelium using image analysis software. The expression of α-parvin was significantly higher in BC tissues (p = 0.0002) and BC stroma (p < 0.0001) than in normal tissues. Furthermore, all α-parvin scores were significantly positively correlated with the proliferation marker Ki67. The overall and stroma scores are associated with the tumor, (lymph) node, and metastasis (TNM) classification, stage, and grade. These results suggest that high expression of α-parvin in stroma is associated with BCs and might be a new predictive marker for diagnosing BC.

For Japan to achieve its targets for carbon neutrality and reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, decarbonization of road transport is essential. Japan regards next-generation vehicles, including hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and fuel cell vehicles, as a key means of reducing carbon emissions from road transport. Four scenarios were proposed to predict the potential carbon emissions reduction of passenger car use in 2030: baseline, business-as-usual, government's target-based, and aggressive scenarios. Economic input–output life cycle assessment was used to evaluate potential CO2 emissions, acidification, eutrophication, human toxicity, and photochemical oxidation associated with passenger cars. In this study, all environmental impacts were calculated using the multi-regional environmentally extended supply and use/input–output database by applying the CML 2001 impact assessment method. The findings indicate that PHEVs have the lowest CO2 emissions per km traveled, followed by HEVs and BEVs. The prediction for carbon emissions from passenger cars shows that adopting electrified vehicles, such as HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs could help decarbonize the passenger car sector. The population of vehicles, vehicle manufacturing, well-to-wheel cycle of fuel, and fuel economy will significantly contribute to CO2 emissions. Finally, this study recommends policies to steer Japan into achieving its goal of carbon neutrality.

Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significant changes in work and lifestyle, impacting occupational mental health. This study examines the time and individual heterogeneity in the pandemic's effects on occupational mental health using panel data from job stress checks spanning 2018 to 2021. On average, there was an initial alleviation of high-stress risk in 2020, followed by a deterioration in 2021. Based on the job demand-resource theory, we identify the group of employees most affected by the pandemic. The findings highlight that employees in unfavorable workplace conditions are more likely to experience substantial adverse impacts. Adequate workplace support, including factors like interpersonal relationships, managerial support, job meaning, control, and work-life balance, is crucial for mitigating high-stress risk. Additionally, during the early phase of the pandemic, engaged employees experienced a slight decline in occupational mental health, while those lacking job resources at their worksite faced higher levels of occupational stress in the subsequent year. These findings offer practical suggestions for person-centered coping strategies to mitigate the pandemic's adverse impact.

Abstract Improved economic growth and environmental protection are necessary to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. This study examines the relationship between people’s education levels and sustainable lifestyles in protecting the environment and economic growth, as expressed by the increase in household equivalent income. We conducted an original cross-sectional survey, which yielded 100,956 valid observations in 37 countries. The factors included educational level, sustainable lifestyle with natural resource consumption, and household equivalent income for economic development. We used logit and ordered logit model and applied an ordinary linear regression model after confirming the association between education and income. Our analyses found that higher educational levels were associated with an increase in specific environmentally friendly behaviors and sustainable energy consumption. Individuals in the higher educational level group tended to consume recycled goods, purchase energy-saving household products, conserve electricity, and separate their waste. Additionally, higher levels of education were positively associated with equivalent household income in all 37 countries, indicating better economic development. Thus, our study underscores the importance of improving education at the broad population level to promote economic development and establish cooperative human behaviors necessary to sustain the environment.

Abstract The relationships among human well-being, income, and age have long been debated. The association between human well-being and income is believed to be U-shaped, although the reasons remain elusive. A recent study shows a turning point in the link between human well-being and income; that is, increased income does not always improve well-being. However, the mechanisms of the effects of income and age on human well-being are unknown. Here, we illustrate the total cumulative effects of income and age on evaluated well-being through all observed causal pathways based on a 1.6-million-observation global dataset and the structural causal model. This is the first study to investigate those casual relationships globally. We find that an increase in age always reduces evaluated well-being, and the adverse effects are aggravated with age. Furthermore, increased income continuously improves human well-being, but the impacts gradually become marginal with higher income. Our results demonstrate that physical health improvement in older people is the most effective way to intervene against the harmful effects of age on well-being. Moreover, increased income may dramatically enhance the well-being of people living close to the poverty line.

Abstract Based on a unique and extensive dataset of top executives, this study explores the effect of top executives’ attributes on firm performance through strategic choices for capital structure and investments. The big five personalities and top executives’ other four essential personal attributes are identified from over 970,000 observations in Japanese firms. We applied structural equational modeling to test the hypothesized mediation models and the differences across large, medium, and small-sized firms. The results show that top executives in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) present stronger linkages with strategic choices, significantly mediating the relationship between top executives’ attributes and firm performance. Specifically, top executives with higher conscientiousness, decisiveness, and financial prudence tend to choose conservative strategies, while those with higher neuroticism, openness, and agreeableness tend to adopt risky and innovative strategies. In contrast, top executives’ attributes can hardly predict firm strategies and outcomes for large firms, and neither fails to predict firm outcomes in SMEs given the inconsistent mediation.

Abstract Background The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) poses special challenges for societies, as the disease causes millions of deaths. Although the direct prevention measures affect the prevalence and mortality the most, the other indirect factors, including natural environments and economics, could not be neglected. Evaluating the effect of natural land cover on COVID-19 health outcomes is an urgent and crucial public health topic. Methods Here, we examine the relationships between natural land cover and the prevalence and mortality of COVID-19 in the United States. To probe the effects of long-term living with natural land cover, we extract county-level land cover data from 2001 to 2019. Based on statistically spatial tests, we employ the Spatial Simultaneous Autoregressive (SAC) Model to estimate natural land cover’s impact and monetary values on COVID-19 health outcomes. To examine the short-term effects of natural environments, we build a seasonal panel data set about the greenery index and COVID-19 health outcomes. The panel SAC model is used to detect the relationship between the greenery index and seasonal COVID-19 health outcomes. Results A 1% increase in open water or deciduous forest is associated with a 0.004-death and 0.163-conformed-case, or 0.006-death and 0.099-confirmed-case decrease in every 1,000 people. Converting them into monetary value, for the mortality, a 1% increase in open water, deciduous forest, or evergreen forest in a county is equivalent to a 212-, 313-, or 219-USD increase in household income in the long term. Moreover, for the prevalence, a 1% change in open water, deciduous forest, or mixed forest is worth a 382-, 230-, or 650-USD increase in household income. Furthermore, a rational development intensity is also critical to reduce the risk of the COVID-19 pandemic. More greenery in the short term is also linked to lower prevalence and mortality. Conclusions Our study underscores the importance of incorporating natural land cover as a means of mitigating the risks and negative consequences of future pandemics like COVID-19 and promoting overall public health.

Hot springs have long been used for medical purposes throughout the world. Recently, the positive effects of hot spa-bathing on circulatory diseases have been reported, while there are few reports on the mental effects of hot spa-bathing. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between hot spa-bathing habits and mental health throughout Japan. We conducted a nationwide online survey, including questions on bathing behavior, subjective satisfaction, lifestyle, and illness. The results showed a significant positive correlation between hot spa-bathing habits and multiple subjective satisfaction levels regarding mental health effects. The factor analysis results indicated that hot spa-bathing habits tended to be associated with good mental health, high health consciousness, and disease. Our study revealed that subjective satisfaction was higher among individuals with hot spa-bathing habits, suggesting that the hot spring spa-bathing habit may have a positive influence on mental health.

Abstract Japan is a highly urbanized and severely aging society. In an aging society, chronic disease and disability are prevalent, and the population is sensitive to environmental issues and climate change. To identify the effects of population changes, formulate population and public health policies, and assist environmental projects, a high-resolution and accurate gridded population dataset is highly desirable. To provide basic data for research in these areas, we created an open access annual dataset from 2001 to 2020 containing the total, male, and female population counts in each grid at a resolution of 500 m. A random forest method was employed to fill the gaps in Japan’s nationwide census data collected in 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. The yearly population dataset was based on the 4th-level mesh data from the Statistics Bureau of Japan to make it easy to use. The dataset is provided here along with descriptions of the data and methods used in the fitting, cross-validation, and prediction processes.

Abstract This paper investigates the role of social capital (SC) in subjective quality of life to address the limitations of existing observable indicators as evidence for public policy. We use a large-scale survey of 100,956 respondents across 37 countries, including both developed and less developed countries. The empirical results suggest that higher SC is more strongly associated with better subjective health and higher satisfaction in low-income countries than in high-income countries. Moreover, while low-income countries show a lower level of perceived economic inequality at the community level with higher SC, high-income countries present a higher level. We further find that higher levels of educational attainment increase the perception of economic inequality and that this impact decreases with SC. Enhancing SC may lead to improved quality of life in most low-income countries, and lifestyle and cultural factors also play a crucial role. These findings indicate that noneconomic factors underpin better lives, and further research is needed to address the social aspects of life.

Abstract The statement of sustainability in the sustainable development goals (SDGs) framework needs to be supplemented by a formal proof that intergenerational well-being also improves. This is the first study that aims to provide empirical evidence that links the progress of the SDGs and the changes in well-being, which are proxied by the SDG Index and the Inclusive Wealth (IW) Index, respectively. We propose an SDGs-wealth model which was analyzed using a machine learning method involving a balanced panel of 147 countries for 2000–2019. We find a strong correlation between wealth and the SDGs, with Goals 12, 13, and 7 being the most significant predictors of wealth. In contrast to Goals 12 and 13, we find a positive correlation between Goal 7 and the per capita IW Index, suggesting that promoting affordable and clean energy is beneficial for wealth accumulation. Quite the opposite, fostering responsible consumption and production and climate actions might be detrimental to wealth. We also find an alarming result for 50 countries in our study since they have deviated from the sustainable development trajectories either in the short or long run. Our study suggests that to achieve sustainable development, instead of focusing on the complex interactions among the SDGs, policymakers should put a stronger focus on improving IW.

Abstract Since energy consumption became an important contributor to climate change owing to carbon emissions, energy-saving behavior and expenditure at the household level have been attracting scholars’ and policymakers’ attention. This study identified whether greenhouse gas emissions at the household level can be reduced through purchase of energy-saving goods and whether the energy-saving behavior enhanced with household income increase. We conducted a large-scale survey across 37 nations using internet-based and face-to-face approaches, collecting 100,956 observations. The wealth effect on energy consumption expenditure at the household level was found to be positive across countries, confirming that energy consumption increases with household wealth improvement. Furthermore, households show a positive association between household energy expenditure and life satisfaction in 27 out of 37 countries, including China, India, the United States, and Germany. Additionally, the favorable effects of household energy-saving behavior are confirmed. However, purchase of household energy-saving products has a limited effect on energy consumption expenditure, compared with that of energy-curtailment behavior. In conclusion, achieving a carbon–neutral household by reducing energy consumption expenditure at the household level is challenging; thus, along with the use of energy-saving goods, alternative energy sources, such as renewable energies, are recommended.

Abstract Background The Japanese government has restricted people’s going-out behavior by declaring a non-punitive state of emergency several times under COVID-19. This study aims to analyze how multiple policy interventions that impose non-legally binding restrictions on behavior associate with people’s going-out. Theory This study models the stigma model of self-restraint behavior under the pandemic with habituation effects. The theoretical result indicates that the state of emergency’s self-restraint effects weaken with the number of times. Methods The empirical analysis examines the impact of emergency declarations on going-out behavior using a prefecture-level daily panel dataset. The dataset includes Google’s going-out behavior data, the Japanese government’s policy interventions based on emergency declarations, and covariates that affect going-out behavior, such as weather and holidays. Results First, for multiple emergency declarations from the beginning of the pandemic to 2021, the negative association between emergency declarations and mobility was confirmed in a model that did not distinguish the number of emergency declarations. Second, in the model that considers the number of declarations, the negative association was found to decrease with the number of declarations. Conclusion These empirical analyses are consistent with the results of theoretical analyses, which show that the negative association between people’s going-out behavior and emergency declarations decreases in magnitude as the number of declarations increases.

Abstract Research on the relationship between rainfall variability and conflicts has yielded contradictory results. This study is the first to show that the significance of the impact of rainfall variability on conflicts depends on the temporal unit of analysis. We prove this point by comparing the statistical significance of the linkages between georeferenced conflicts and rainfall variabilities at the monthly and annual levels with panel data analyses from 1989 to 2020. We find that a 10 percent increase in monthly rainfall decreases the risk of conflict incidence by 0.0298 percent, but annual rainfall variability is not statistically linked to conflict outbreaks. These statistically significant disparities result from the aggregation of data dispersion and the disregard for the timing of the impact of rainfall on conflicts. These findings highlight the importance of information on monthly rainfall variation when estimating the impact of rainfall on conflicts.

This study investigates the impact of environmental concerns, concerns about potential accidents, and the perceived advantages of fully autonomous vehicles on individuals’ willingness to buy and the perceived value of these vehicles. Our research, conducted through a comprehensive survey with over 180,000 respondents in Japan and analyzed using structural equation modeling, reveals a nuanced disparity between willingness to buy and perceived value. We find that individuals concerned with the conservation of the natural environment are more likely to purchase fully autonomous vehicles due to their broader interest in societal issues and belief in the potential of new technologies like fully autonomous vehicles as solutions. However, these individuals attribute a lower perceived value to these vehicles, mainly because their adoption does not directly contribute to the conservation of the natural environment. Additionally, our results show that those recognizing the potential advantages of fully autonomous vehicle technology have a higher willingness to buy and perceived value, while those with apprehensions about the technology are less likely to purchase and attribute a lower perceived value to these vehicles. This study offers vital insights for policy and planning, highlighting the complex interplay of factors influencing the willingness to buy and perceived value of fully autonomous vehicles, critical for strategizing their adoption.

Abstract Background Every year, more than 700,000 people die due to suicide, one of the most common reasons for youth death. While many studies have revealed two main factors for suicidal behavior: impulsive suicidal behavior due to mental illness and financial stress, it is not clear what happens if individuals face deterioration of mental health and economic recession. This paper attempts to answer this question and how suicide rates are correlated with these factors. Methods We empirically investigate whether economic recessions and air pollution trigger suicides by examining Japan, a country with one of the highest suicide rates, from 2014 to 2021. We take advantage of the characteristics of the COVID-19 pandemic and the periods before the pandemic, when both economic recessions and reductions in air pollution occurred simultaneously. Using monthly and municipal- level data, we construct a triple difference model that takes air pollution and unemployment as treatments. Results Our findings show that high (upper half of each period) levels of air pollution and unemployment have substantial impacts on the suicide rates of adults (22.9% in the short term) and children (42.7% in the short term, 36.0% in the long term), indicating that the increase in suicide rates among children is almost twice as high as that among adults. Our study finds that unemployment and air pollution alone are not associated with increased suicide rates but their simultaneous occurrence triggers suicides during the pandemic. Conclusions Our study urges suicide prevention, particularly among children, as an essential consideration for public health. Furthermore, our results indicate the need for the government to allocate resources to recover air quality and the economy simultaneously during a recession to reduce suicide mortality of both child and adults.

Abstract Background This study provides objective evidence on the impact of COVID-19 based on employee occupational stress reported from 13 different industries, and examines the determinants of employee psychological well-being. As the economic and social impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic continue, governments should consider industry-level differences when making support decisions concerning public resource allocation to corporations. However, little evidence exists regarding the differences in occupational stress across industries. Methods Employee occupational stress data (N = 673,071) was derived from workers in Japan from 2018 to 2020. The sample comprises workers from 13 industries, including civil services, service industry (other), real estate, medical/welfare, wholesale/retail, academic research, and accommodation/restaurant business. A logit model is employed to investigate the differences in employees’ psychological well-being before and during the pandemic. Results In 2020, 11 out of 12 industries had significantly worse occupational stress compared to employees engaged in civil services. Over 23% of employees from the wholesale/retail and accommodation/restaurant industries were observed as high-stress employees. Improved compensation policies supporting these industries are suggested. In contrast, reduced occupational stress was found among employees in the transportation/postal and information/communication industries. Among the 13 industries, aside from high job demands, tough inter-person relationships in the workplace became the most significant stressors during the pandemic. Conclusions The results confirm that the pandemic has had a heterogeneous effect on employee occupational stress across industries, thus suggesting that the level of compensation given to different industries during the COVID-19 pandemic should be discussed and approved by the Japanese government. Additionally, support for the wholesale/retail and accommodation/restaurant industries during the pandemic should be improved.

Abstract Background Human capital is thought to be a crucial factor that drives economic growth. This study aims to understand the evaluation of the loss of human capital caused by employees’ occupational stress. Methods In total, 1,021,178 observations for employee occupational stress were collected from 390 companies from 2017 to 2019 in Japan. The original cross-sectional survey contains 11,167 employees with occupational stress and their socioeconomic information in 2015. The relationship between stress and annual income is estimated with polynomial regression, and accumulated human capital loss is estimated. Matching approaches are applied for corporate human capital loss. Results The negative association between annual income and employee stress is derived, which indicates that the worse the employees’ stress is, the greater the human capital losses. Importantly, we confirmed that most employees have human capital loss, and on average, for male employees aged 25, the accumulated human capital loss will reach approximately $0.6 million USD by retirement. Conclusion For corporations, human capital loss is highly correlated with the number of employees, suggesting that reducing the occupational stress of employees can lead to greater corporate performance.

Abstract Background Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) engagement is expected to benefit corporations in terms of their efficiency and sustainability. The transformative change in management practices would not only provide support for employees but also bring about additional workload, which may affect employee psychological well-being. However, the examination of the relationship between corporate ESG activities and occupational stress is scarce; hence, this study aims to fill this knowledge gap. Methods In total, 110,351 observations were collected from 41,998 employees regarding occupational stress to reflect employee psychological well-being. The data were derived from 11 corporations in Japan from 2017 to 2019. Data on ESG activities were collected from the MSCI ESG database from 2015 to 2017. The effect of 1-year lagged corporate ESG activities on employee psychological well-being was investigated using a lagged variable linear regression model. Results Positive and negative relationships were found between corporate environmental activities and occupational stress. Activities that reduce water stress during operation and adopt clean technology were found to benefit employees’ psychological well-being. On the contrary, the program for reducing toxic emissions and waste lowered employees’ occupational stress levels significantly. Regarding corporate social activities, the improvement of job satisfaction or work-life balance was associated with occupational stress. However, corporate governance activities were found to have unfavorable effects on employees’ psychological well-being. Conclusion The effects of corporate ESG activities on employees’ psychological well-being are found. The managerial implications suggest that caring for employees’ occupational stress during the implementation of environmental activities is necessary, and the adoption of social activities could enhance employees’ psychological well-being. Notably, corporate governance activities are a stressor for employees; top management teams should pay attention to it.

We review the literature on the motivators of consumers’ purchasing decisions regarding autonomous vehicles (AVs), focusing on environmental awareness, vehicle types, concerns about accidents, and merits. The willingness to buy (WTB) and willingness to pay (WTP) for AVs have been extensively studied. However, it is imperative to broaden the outlook and consolidate the existing knowledge base. Although the WTB and WTP for AVs have been studied, automation-level preferences have been underresearched. Based on more than 150,000 observations, we construct a choice model and calculate the WTP for each level of automation. Our results show that there is a disparity between people's WTB and WTP according to the automation level. In particular, we find that the coefficients regarding FAVs’ benefits and accidents significantly exceed those related to environmental concerns. Such results indicate that practical benefits and concerns influence AV demand and WTP to a greater extent than environmental awareness. Our model results indicate a disparity between WTB and WTP for AVs that mostly derives from the different types of environmental concerns, concerns about accidents, and perceived benefits from these automobiles. Our results urge policies according to which governments and companies closely examine consumers who exhibit WTB-WTP disparities. Issues relating to demand patterns, WTP, and a suitable policy framework are discussed.

Abstract Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) mainly originates from combustion emissions. On-road transportation is considered one of the primary sources of PM2.5 emission. The relationship between on-road transportation and PM2.5 concentration varies temporally and spatially, and the estimation for this variation is important for policymaking. Here, we reveal the quantitative association of PM2.5 concentration with on-road transportation by the spatial panel Durbin model and the geographical and temporal weighted regression. We find that 6.17 billion kilometres (km) per km2 on-road transportation increase is associated with a 1-μg/m3 county-level PM2.5 concentration increase in the contiguous United States. On-road transportation marginally contributes to PM2.5, only 1.09% on average. Approximately 3605 premature deaths are attributed to PM2.5 from on-road transportation in 2010, and about a total of 50,223 premature deaths ascribe to PM2.5 taking 6.49% from 2003 to 2016. Our findings shed light on the necessity of the county-level policies considering the temporal and spatial variability of the relationship to further mitigate PM2.5 from on-road transportation.

Hydrogen is a low or zero-carbon energy source that is considered the most promising and potential energy carrier of the future. In this study, the energy sources, feedstocks, and various methods of hydrogen production from power generation are comparatively investigated in detail. In addition, this study presents an economic assessment to evaluate cost-effectiveness based on different economic indicators, including sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFCs) technology has the most potential to be developed compared to several other technologies. PEMFCs have been widely used in various fields and have advantages (i.e., start-up, zero-emissions, high power density). Among the various sources of uncertainty in the sensitivity analysis, the cost estimation method shows inflationary deviations from the proposed cost of capital. This is due to the selection process and untested technology. In addition, the cost of electricity and raw materials, as the main factors that are unpredictable.

During the past two decades, the world has seen exponential growth in the number of companies reporting environmental, social, and governance (ESG) data, and various ESG metrics have been proposed and are now in use. ESG metrics play a crucial role as an enabler of investment strategies that consider ESG factors, which are often referred to as “ESG investments”. The ESG metrics and investment market are evolving rapidly, as investors, corporations, and the public are giving more priority to the “S” in ESG, including social equity issues, such as diversity, income inequality, worker safety, systemic racism, and companies' broader role in society. In this critical, systematic review, utilizing in-depth assessments, we investigate and compare the approaches employed in major ESG metrics and studies, then, we shed light on the “S” aspect by reviewing existing approaches used to assess social equity to clarify commensurability with ESG. Through the systematic review, this paper confirms that ESG investments can be expected to provide stable and high returns especially over the long term. This paper also clarifies how elements considered in social equity studies are largely reflected in major ESG metrics.

Abstract People migrate from rural to urban areas. In the meantime, the benefits of staying in greener areas are also known. People’s preferences might be different by area that is composed of several land types. If so, the effect of particular land cover on human well-being is different spatially. The spatial analysis is required to formulate effective land-use policies. Here we show that urban land, water, and grassland are positively related to human well-being, whereas bare land is negatively associated in Japan. A 1 $${\mathrm{m}}^{2}$$ m 2 increase in the area of urban land per capita in a city is equivalent to an about 346 USD increase in the individual annual income of all the people in the city. Additionally, monetary values of areas of water, crops, and bare land per capita are 102, − 30, and − 268 $$\mathrm{USD}/\mathrm{Capita }{\mathrm{m}}^{2}$$ USD / Capita m 2 . Furthermore, the spatial context matters to the relationship between land cover and human well-being. This paper investigates the monetary values of several land types and their spatial variability, which provides insights to make better usage for land cover.

This paper proposes a framework for weighting priority for the multidimensional domains of slum development from the viewpoint of residents. The weights estimated by our framework can be interpreted as marginal utility, and multiplying satisfaction scores in each domain of development by these weights yields residents' utility from slum development. The proposed approach is carried out by accessing residents' needs for slum development in Mumbai, India, where more than 5.2 million residents live in slum areas. Using the dataset obtained from a questionnaire survey that we conducted with slum residents in March 2019, we estimate marginal utilities for 23 domains of slum development. The results show that (1) slum residents most wish to improve development projects about human capital (health and education), electricity, and drinking water, even if they have already been highly satisfied, (2) they feel the least satisfaction with public toilets and place high priority on projects involving public toilets, (3) the sewage system has low priority with low satisfaction, but this priority increases as slum residents become better off, (4) the projects on social development and protection are highly satisfied and generally ranked low in terms of marginal utilities, and (5) air pollution and working conditions are also concerns of slum residents, especially as these residents become better off. It is expected that the framework used in this paper can be used to extract the problems of urban development and to track the progress of development plans from the viewpoint of residents.

Interest in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from conventional power generation has increased the focus on the potential use of hydrogen to produce electricity. Numerous life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies of hydrogen-based power generation have been published. This study reviews the technological and methodological choices made in hydrogen-based power generation LCAs. A systematic review was chosen as the research method to achieve a comprehensive and minimally biased overview of hydrogen-based power generation LCAs. Relevant articles published between 2004 and 2021 were identified by searching the Scopus and Web of Science databases. Electrolysis from renewable energy resources was the most widely considered type of hydrogen production in the LCAs analyzed. Fuel cell technology was the most common conversion equipment used in hydrogen-based electricity LCAs. A significant number of scenarios examine the use of hydrogen for energy storage and co-generation purposes. Based on qualitative analysis, the methodological choices of LCAs vary between studies in terms of the functional units, allocations, system boundaries, and life-cycle impact assessment methods chosen. These discrepancies were likely to influence the value of the environmental impact results. The findings of the reviewed LCAs could provide an environmental profile of hydrogen-based electricity systems, identify hotspots, drive future research, define performance goals, and establish a baseline for their large-scale deployment.

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has affected society in immeasurable ways, including investment. As the pandemic has impacted society's values, it has proven to be a major turning point for environmental, social, and governance (ESG) investment. This investment approach, which evaluates a company's ESG ratings alongside traditional financial metrics, was already “coming off a banner year,” and its reach continues to expand. Although numerous studies have investigated the impact of ESG scores on financial returns and the trend in ESG investment strategies, only a limited number of studies have attempted to capture the key players in ESG investment. Therefore, to determine the most influential investors in the ESG investment field, the cumulative impacts are calculated based on the ESG scores of invested companies, the total market price of invested companies, and the investor history portfolio report. We perform an iteration of calculation to convey the impacts that the invested companies have on the ultimate investors, and we identify the major players in the field and differences in the trend by type of investor and country.

Abstract Background The COVID-19 pandemic has shown a continuously increasing trend with a large variation in the number of COVID-19 deaths across countries. In response, many countries have implemented non pharmaceutical methods of intervention, such as social distancing and lockdowns. This study aims to investigate the relationship of four dimensions of social capital (community attachment, social trust, family bond, and security) and several control variables with COVID-19 deaths. Methods We retrieved data from open access databases and a survey. COVID-19 death-related data were collected from the website “Centre for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University”. Social capital-related data were collected from a large-scale survey that included web-based and face-to-face surveys covering 100,956 respondents across all regions/provinces/states of 37 countries in 2017. Data regarding population density, number of hospital beds, and population aged 65 or older were retrieved from the World Development Indicators (WDIs). Data on country lockdowns were obtained from the website “National responses to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic”. Linear regressions were applied to identify the relationship between social capital and COVID-19 deaths. Results We found that COVID-19 deaths were associated with social capital both positively and negatively. Community attachment and social trust were associated with more COVID-19 deaths, and family bond and security were associated with fewer deaths. COVID-19 deaths were positively associated with population density, ageing population, and interactions between four dimensions of social capital-related factors and the ageing population. Furthermore, the number of hospital beds and early lockdown policy were negatively associated with COVID-19 deaths. Conclusions The results indicate that the role of social capital in dynamically evolving threats, such as the current COVID-19 pandemic, is not always negative or positive. Therefore, people’s behaviour should be changed to support countries’ response to the COVID-19 threat.

Abstract Background The decline in global and between-country health inequality is a major challenge to overcome. However, few studies have systematically investigated the relationship between inequality of health stock and national wealth. From an economic perspective, health can be viewed as a durable capital stock that produces an output of healthy time. Therefore, in this paper, we focused on health capital to investigate the relationship between inequalities of national health and national wealth. Methods Based on health stock data from 1990 to 2015 for 140 countries, we estimated Gini coefficients of health stock to investigate associations with a well-known economic flow indicator, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), stock-based national wealth indicator, Inclusive Wealth Index (IWI), and firm-level net income. Results The estimated Gini coefficient of global health stock shows that health stock has experienced a global decline. The Gini coefficient for low-income countries (LICs) showed the fastest decline in health stock, dropping from 0.69 to 0.66 in 25 years. Next, rapid population growth and the rise in the youth share of the working-age population in LICs were most likely contributing factors to the decline in inequality. Most countries that experienced positive health stock growth also indicated a strong positive relationship with GDP and IWI. However, some countries showed a negative relationship with natural capital, which is a part of IWI. In addition, firm-level net income showed no obvious associations with health stock, GDP and IWI. Conclusions We argue that a negative relationship between health stock and natural capital is a sign of unstable development because sustainable development involves maintaining not only GDP but also IWI, as it is a collective set of assets or wealth comprising human, produced and natural capital. Moreover, in our analysis of firm-level income data, we also discuss that income will be influenced by other factors, such as innovations, human resources, organization culture and strategy. Therefore, the paper concludes that health stock is a vital component in measuring health inequality and health-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Thus, IWI is more comprehensive in measuring national wealth and can complement GDP in measuring progress toward sustainable development.

Abstract Background Global warming is the most serious problem we face today. Each country is expected to ensure international cooperation toward minimizing risk. To evaluate the countermeasures, many researchers have developed integrated assessment models (IAMs). Then, how can each country achieve its emission quota? This study proposes models that analyze the economic impact of global warming in a region based on the results obtained by the global model. By using these suggested models, we perform a comparative analysis on three policy cases: a different regulations case, a unified regulation case, and an output redistribution case. Results We analyzed Japan as one of the case studies and found that more developed areas should implement stricter regulations in all scenarios. In addition, the case of applying different regulations by area (in a region) is not always preferable to using unified regulations in the region. Alternatively, the output gap between the output redistribution case and the different regulations case is much higher than the gap between the unified regulation case and the different regulations case. In all scenarios, the present values of the output of the output redistribution case are also higher than the other cases. Conclusions The different regulations case and the unified regulation case are based on the model without capital transfer between areas, whereas the output redistribution case is based on the model with free capital transfer between areas. Although both models are extreme situations, the regions close to the without capital transfer situation possibly have an incentive to use the different regulations policy, depending on the emission target. The regions close to the situation with free capital transfer would probably prefer unified regulation.

This paper assesses the impact of resource accessibility, seed sources and varietal diversification on the production efficiency of Sri Lankan rice growers using farm and household level survey data. The empirical results show that there are opportunities for average Sri Lankan rice farmers to further improve production efficiency by up to 30%. Among the variables, those related to resource accessibility, age, migration, income sources and agricultural training are all found to affect production efficiency. Furthermore, we find that households relying only on their own saved seeds are less efficient compared to those who had purchased seeds from markets. In addition, this study indicates that varietal diversification significantly reduces production efficiency.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide the extensive review on dynamic monitoring of forestry area in China. Design/methodology/approach – Countermeasure and suggestions were proposed for three aspects including the establishment of data sets with unified standards, top-level design of monitoring and assessment and analysis models, and establishment of the decision support platform with multiple scenario simulation. Findings – Finally, the authors proposed key research area in this field, i.e., improving the systematic and optimal forest management through integrating and improving the data, models and simulation platforms and coupling the data integration system, assessment system and decision support system. Originality/value – The authors explored the limitation of dynamic monitoring and state of the art research on data accumulation, professional model development and the analytical platform.

Still a lot of Indonesia’s population lacks access to electricity, and a large number of those people live in remote areas or on islands. Traditionally, electrification of areas not yet connected to the main electricity grid and too remote for grid extension has mainly been achieved through installation of decentralized generation units with diesel generators. However, with decreased cost of renewable energy technologies, renewable hybrid mini-grid systems are becoming economically viable options in an ever-increasing number of places. This paper analyzes the economic viability of renewable hybrid mini-grid systems with solar Photo-Voltaic cells, batteries, and diesel generators in a typical un-electrified village in Indonesia employing local data. The analysis is conducted by utilizing HOMER simulation techniques to design the optimal renewable hybrid mini-grid systems and the economic viability assessment of the system is performed by comparing the levelized cost of energy of the system with that of the conventional diesel system under different financial scenarios. Further financial analyses, such as Internal Rate of Return and Net Present Value, are performed for the hybrid systems to investigate what kind of financial scenarios (debt/equity ratios) and public aid (international aid and government fund), would make the hybrid systems attractive to private investors. The analysis has clarified that even at the most conservative scenario with 100% equity finance, the levelized cost of energy of the renewable hybrid mini-grid system is lower than that of the diesel system. Further analysis has shown that grant finance that covers 35% of the total project cost could make the hybrid system a profitable investment project for private investors even in the most conservative scenario. The paper also demonstrates that the profitability of renewable hybrid mini-grid systems is highly affected by financial scenarios (debt/equity ratios) in comparison with that of diesel systems, concluding with policy recommendations.

Abstract Background In the prevailing economic perspective, health is viewed as a type of capital stock that yields ‘healthy days’ in human society. However, evaluations of this health capital stock are still limited to specific contexts. The primary aim of this study is to measure and forecast the global health stocks in 140 countries from 1990 to 2100. Methods The health capital stock in each country from 1990 to 2015 was estimated using a capital approach. The future health stocks between 2016 and 2100 were forecast using a time-series model. Results Based on the health stocks from 1990 to 2015, low-income countries have much larger and more rapidly growing health stocks. In the long-term, to 2100, upper-middle income countries, particularly countries in the Middle East and North Africa, exhibit great growth that benefits from the peaks in their youth or working-age populations. Immigration also contributes to health stock growth, as do other factors, e.g., the fertility rate, population ageing, and working-age and youth populations. Conclusions Health stock is a vital component of global sustainable development that should be consistently included as a stock-based sustainability index in the evaluations of other capital to accurately measure national wealth and sustainability.

Summary: Background: The association of air pollution with multiple adverse health outcomes is becoming well established, but its negative economic impact is less well appreciated. It is important to elucidate this impact for the states of India. Methods: We estimated exposure to ambient particulate matter pollution, household air pollution, and ambient ozone pollution, and their attributable deaths and disability-adjusted life-years in every state of India as part of the Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) 2019. We estimated the economic impact of air pollution as the cost of lost output due to premature deaths and morbidity attributable to air pollution for every state of India, using the cost-of-illness method. Findings: 1·67 million (95% uncertainty interval 1·42–1·92) deaths were attributable to air pollution in India in 2019, accounting for 17·8% (15·8–19·5) of the total deaths in the country. The majority of these deaths were from ambient particulate matter pollution (0·98 million [0·77–1·19]) and household air pollution (0·61 million [0·39–0·86]). The death rate due to household air pollution decreased by 64·2% (52·2–74·2) from 1990 to 2019, while that due to ambient particulate matter pollution increased by 115·3% (28·3–344·4) and that due to ambient ozone pollution increased by 139·2% (96·5–195·8). Lost output from premature deaths and morbidity attributable to air pollution accounted for economic losses of US$28·8 billion (21·4–37·4) and $8·0 billion (5·9–10·3), respectively, in India in 2019. This total loss of $36·8 billion (27·4–47·7) was 1·36% of India's gross domestic product (GDP). The economic loss as a proportion of the state GDP varied 3·2 times between the states, ranging from 0·67% (0·47–0·91) to 2·15% (1·60–2·77), and was highest in the low per-capita GDP states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. Delhi had the highest per-capita economic loss due to air pollution, followed by Haryana in 2019, with 5·4 times variation across all states. Interpretation: The high burden of death and disease due to air pollution and its associated substantial adverse economic impact from loss of output could impede India's aspiration to be a $5 trillion economy by 2024. Successful reduction of air pollution in India through state-specific strategies would lead to substantial benefits for both the health of the population and the economy. Funding: UN Environment Programme; Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; and Indian Council of Medical Research, Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.

We analyze the relationship between economic growth and environmental quality from the sustainability framework. For this purpose, we conduct a pooled mean group estimator analysis for 140 countries during the 1990–2014 period. As a proxy for environmental quality, we use the natural capital component of inclusive wealth, which takes into account both market and nonmarket assets that contribute to well-being, covering agricultural, fishery, forestry, fossil fuels, and minerals. Cointegration analysis reveals that over the long term, the impacts of economic growth and population density on natural capital levels are significant. While population growth places continuous pressure on natural capital extraction levels, the impact of economic growth on environmental quality is nonlinear. We find a beneficial impact of the composition and a technical effect of the economy, which decouples environmental degradation from economic growth. However, it only occurs temporarily, since the strong link between environmental degradation and economic growth reappears once the secondary turning point is achieved. We show important implications for natural resource management policy.

Extreme weather events are reported to have severe effects on rural households in the developing world. This study uses a unique and comparable panel dataset of about 4000 rural households collected in three years (2010, 2013, and 2016) from Northeast Thailand and Central Vietnam to examine and compare the welfare effects of floods, droughts, and storms reported to be experienced by rural households. Our results show that these weather shocks have significant effects on household income, consumption, and poverty in both countries, though the levels of severity are different. Drought is the common extreme weather event in these two countries with significant and negative effects on household income, consumption and poverty. In Thailand, floods have higher impacts on rural households in terms of income and poverty than storms do. Compared to Thailand, Vietnam is more exposed and significantly affected by storms. In addition to weather shocks, the welfare of rural households is significantly affected by other factors representing their livelihood platforms. Promoting farm mechanization and rural education should be given high priority in both countries. In Thailand, the accumulation of farmland should also be encouraged. In Vietnam, accelerating internet access and supporting livestock production would contribute to increasing household income and consumption and consequently decreasing poverty.

Wealth commonly refers to the measure of the value of all assets or capital owned by an individual, community, company or nation. Sustainable development requires that the per capita productive base or comprehensive wealth of an economy should at least not decline over a period of time. We present here a comprehensive assessment of cross-country productivity over a study period of 1990–2010 for 140 countries. We used the concept of inclusive wealth introduced by the United Nations to assess the social value, rather than dollar price, of all each country's assets, including produced, human and natural capital.

Previous studies have shown that people understand the future ancillary cost of durable goods such as an automotive vehicle. However, consumers tend to misunderstand the future benefits and costs of these goods. One of the most interesting discussions about consumer cognitive ability for future energy cost is the miles per gallon (MPG) illusion. In this study, we analyze people’s misunderstanding of the relationship between kilometers per liter (KPL) and the actual amount of fuel saved using vehicle owner survey data. We developed some questions to measure how much each person is involved with the MPG (or KPL) illusion. Additionally, our survey includes questions capturing some preferences affecting future fuel costs, such as time. Controlling for the most important respondent characteristics, such as income or gender, our empirical model analyzes the extent of the misunderstanding of how much actual KPL selections of personal auto vehicles are affected. We found that many Japanese consumers tend to misunderstand the relationship between KPL and actual fuel costs. Our results demonstrate that people who misunderstand the relationship tend to choose a higher 4.324 km per liter car than those who understand. This finding implies that the KPL illusion affects the KPL selection of consumers’ cars.