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Foreign language learners frequently use words from their previously acquired language(s) in the target language, especially if these languages are related (Ringbom, Håkan. 2001. Lexical transfer in L3 production. In Jasone Cenoz, Britta Hufeisen & Ulrike Jessner (eds.), "Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives," 59-68. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters). Such insertions are referred to as 'lexical transfer', commonly divided into 'transfer of form' and 'transfer of meaning' (Bardel, Camilla. 2015. Lexical cross-linguistic influence in third language development." In Hagen Peukert (ed.), "Transfer effects in multilingual language development, 111-128. Amsterdam: John Benjamins; Ringbom, Håkan. 2001. Lexical transfer in L3 production. In Jasone Cenoz, Britta Hufeisen & Ulrike Jessner (eds.), "Cross-linguistic influence in third language acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives," 59-68. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters). Lexical transfer challenges the monolingual habitus prevailing in foreign language classes which requires students to rely exclusively on the target language and inhibit other influences. Thus, in such English classes, students should avoid the use of different languages and ideally only produce monolingual English output. In this context, the current study investigates the use of lexical transfer instances in short English texts written by bilingual (Russian/Turkish-German) and monolingual (German) secondary school students (initially attending year 7) from a longitudinal perspective. It assesses i) whether the students increasingly adhere to the imposed normative rules and ii) what influence background variables such as language background (mono- vs. bilingual), type of school (higher vs. lower academic track), gender (female vs. male), or age (four measurement points over a period of 2.5 years) exert on the use of lexical transfer instances. Apart from gender, all factors impact lexical transfer in a statistically significant way, evoking different norm-based explanations.

A multilingual experience can be considered a significant asset. However, since the earliest studies in the field, research has reported mixed results regarding potential advantages such as increased cognitive ability and metalinguistic awareness. Moreover, studies investigating the influence of bilingualism/multilingualism on the acquisition of additional languages produced partially conflicting findings. This longitudinal study (three measurement time points within 1.5 years) investigates the impact of social, cognitive, and linguistic variables on English proficiency. We rely on data gathered from 374 unbalanced bilinguals (Russian-/Turkish-German), dominant in German, and 600 monolingual (German) students attending grades seven to ten in Germany. We use multiple linear regression models predicting English proficiency to track longitudinal changes. The results show that German reading proficiency and visual-spatial cognitive ability positively impact L2/L3 English C-test scores. In addition, the impact of heritage language proficiency is not statistically significant and language background did not bring about clear differences between the monolingual and bilingual cohorts per se. We conclude that there are differences between the Turkish-German students and their peers, but not between the monolinguals and Russian-German students. We discuss these findings in light of current teaching approaches prevailing in Germany's foreign language classrooms and perceptions of heritage languages in society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Arab Emirates have long been in contact with English. Its economy requires high rates of migration, resulting in large numbers of migrants who impact the local linguistic ecology. English acts as lingua franca and occurs in several forms, as labour is recruited from nations having experienced British or American influences. Arabic is used at home by Emiratis and Arab expatriates. However, it faces pressure from English both in education and at home, where shifts towards English occur. This study focusses on the interaction and competition between English and Arabic among university students. Qualitative results from a mixed methods survey suggest that while Arabic gets high solidarity ratings for "cultural identity," English rates higher for "individual identity." Status measures tend to align in both languages. Gender and citizenship had little effect, unlike self-assessed proficiency in both languages. Overall, English and Arabic are competitive in some areas, but also complementary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the earliest studies on multilingual advantages, it has proved difficult to disentangle language development from general cognition. It remains unclear whether language interdependence is an independent variable or whether observable effects are mediated by cognitive ability. Measurable effects of one language on another typically go hand in hand with differences in cognitive ability. We hypothesise that high cognitive ability produces stronger language interdependence effects than low cognitive ability. We consider this problem in the context of heritage bilingualism in Germany comparing a linguistically mixed cohort of bilingual students (n = 557; i.e. Russian-German, n = 237; Turkish-German, n = 320) with a monolingual German control (n = 852) regarding their proficiencies in the foreign language English. We ask whether the bilingual students manifest an English development that is different from their monolingually socialised peers. We place the students in three different groups depending on their performance in a visual-spatial cognitive ability test. We fit structural equation models to test whether heritage language and German proficiency impact English proficiency differently across these groups while additionally controlling for language background and socio-economic status. Results reveal differences between the high cognitive ability groups, here interpreted as a conditioned bilingualism effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the relationship between (extra)linguistic variables and proficiency in a foreign language. Based on 1,403 secondary school students in Germany (age 12/13 and 14/15), we assess whether proficiency in German, if applicable also Russian or Turkish, cognitive ability, school type, gender, socio-economic status, self-concept, motivation, and self-assessment function differently in predicting English language proficiency when monolingual German learners of English (n = 849) are compared to their bilingual peers (Russian-German: n = 236; Turkish-German: n = 318). Two comprehensive structural equation models capture the multitude of factors influencing foreign language acquisition and contribute to the discussion on multilingual advantages or effects. The results reveal that most variables are statistically significant, but the models function comparably across the three language groups with only minor contrasts regarding effect sizes. We submit that the three language groups are more similar than different and that the heritage languages Russian and Turkish add comparatively little to predicting English language proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to work towards a diachronic reconstruction of pragmatic particles in Colloquial Singapore English (CSE, also known as "Singlish") by exploiting an unused historical data source: The Oral History Interviews held by the National Archives of Singapore (OHI-NAS). We investigate the distribution of five pragmatic particles (ah, lah, leh, lor, and meh) in 101 interviews conducted between 1979 and 2009 in speakers born between 1899 and 1983. Lim (2007) reconstructs the origin of these particles in different substrate languages, with the first two particles (ah and lah) being traceable to earlier Bazaar Malay and/or Hokkien, while the latter three (leh, lor, and meh) are of later Cantonese origin. The results of the present study show that ah and lah are the most frequent particles attested earliest. Their frequency of use increases over time, being additionally contingent on the gender and age of the speakers, their educational level, and their ethnic background. The particles ah and lah are mostly used in assertive contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Byline: Peter Siemund Abstract The study discusses the use of reflexive pronouns as markers of middle situation types and questions the traditional generalization that only light or weak reflexives (e.g., German sich, Spanish se) appear as such markers. Based on an analysis of approximately 2000 examples drawn from the British National Corpus, it explores if and to what extent the English heavy reflexive itself can be found in such contexts. Moreover, it provides a typology of the middle situation types in which the form itself occurs and analyzes the processes that give rise to the use of itself in such contexts. While some incipient grammaticalization processes can be found, the study argues that self-intensification as well as various lexicalization processes need to be considered, too. It also provides an extensive quantitative analysis of the contexts in which itself occurs. The study concludes that morphologically complex or heavy reflexives can occur as markers of middle situation types, contrary to widely accepted accounts. Moreover, it argues that the traditional grammaticalization account given for the occurrence of reflexive pronouns as markers of middle situation types is too simplistic and needs to be revised. Article History: Date received: July 30, 2008 Date revision received: June 07, 2009