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This is an evaluation of Jämtland County’s ability to achieve its climate targets to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions with 10% annually, and to become fossil fuel free 2030. There is a risk that the target to become fossil fuel-free, relying primarily on outtake of forest biomass, contradicts with the target in the UN Paris Agreement to keep the global temperature increase below 1.5°C. Neither the GHG emissions reduction target, nor the target to become fossil fuel free, takes forest carbon content into account. To reach the target to become fossil fuel free, forest harvest volumes may need to be increased. This can result in lower short-term net climate benefits than if fossil fuels are substituted to a less extent, and harvest volumes are kept at lower levels. Lower harvest volumes contribute to higher net climate benefits, and in the short term this effect is greater the lower the harvest level. In any case, forest production should be optimized towards products that give high substitution effects from the replacement of other materials. To be able to reach the short-term reductions of GHG emissions, efforts should be made to decrease regional energy demand and general consumption. The transition to new technologies is slow, and is unlikely to contribute to short-term reductions. By the end of 2023, according to the county strategy, the GHG emissions should be max 73% of the emissions by the end of 2019. This is a historically huge reduction. The potential to increase uptake of carbon dioxide in forests should be considered as a complement to the other climate targets. Assessments of social/welfare risks have to be weighed against the risks of increased temperatures, which is challenging, but needs to be done. The complexity of differences in short-term and long-term carbon balance effects makes risk assessments of climate mitigation strategies difficult. Compromises will be required between risks with different time horizons. To rely on techno-optimistic visions increase the risks that the emission reduction target will not be reached. From some perspectives, it is positive to spread techno-optimistic future visions, but there is a risk that we will keep on increasing consumption if we believe that problems with increased atmospheric concentrations of GHG can be solved by continuous consumption of ‘sustainable’ products. A simple 2% rule of thumb is that 2 kg of CO2eq is emitted for each 100 SEK consumed. Denna avhandling är en utvärdering av Jämtlands läns möjligheter att nå sina klimatmål att reducera växthusgasemissioner med 10% årligen, och samtidigt blir fossilbränslefria 2030. Det föreligger en risk att det regionala målet att bli fossilbränslefritt, vilket delvis vilar på uttag av biomassa, motverkar temperaturmålet i FNs Parisavtal att hålla temperaturökningen under 1,5°C. Varken målet att årligen reducera växthusgasutsläppen eller målet att bli fossilfritt, tar hänsyn till hur kolbalansen ser ut i skogarna. Ett växthusgasreduktionsmål i kombination med målet att bli fossilbränslefri ökar sannolikheten att skogsskördarna ökar, vilket för Jämtland mest sannolikt resulterar i en negativ klimateffekt. Lägre skördevolymer ger på kort sikt stora klimatvinster även om substitutionseffekter inräknas. Oavsett skördenivå bör skördade volymer styras mot produkter som ger hög substitutionseffekt där andra material ersätts. För att snabbt nå minskade växthusgasutsläpp på 10% per år, bör man öka ansträngningarna att reducera samhällets allmänna energibehov och minska totalkonsumtionen. Införandet av nya teknologier går långsamt, och ger knappast några kortsiktiga effekter på utsläppen. Vid slutet av 2023 skall, enligt länsstrategin, växthusgasutsläppen vara max 73% av 2019 års nivå. Detta är en historiskt stor reduktion. Som ett komplement bör möjligheterna att öka det naturliga upptaget av koldioxid undersökas. Bedömningar av välfärdsrisker och riskerna med ökande temperaturer måste vägas mot varandra. Komplexiteten i skillnader i kortsiktiga och långsiktiga effekter på klimatet gör riskbedömningar av olika klimatstrategier svår. Kompromisser kommer krävas mellan risker med olika tidshorisonter. Att förlita sig på techno-optimistiska visioner vilka präglar alla Sveriges länsstrategier, innebär att man inför risker att utsläppsreduktionsmålet inte kommer nås. Techno- optimistiska framtidsvisioner har förvisso sina företräden men det finns en uppenbar risk att konsumtionsnivån fortsätter stiga om vi tror att problemet med den globala uppvärmningen har en snabb lösning i att vi blir fossilbränslefria och konsumtion sker av ”hållbara produkter”. En enkel ”2%-tumregel” är att för varje konsumerad 100-lapp, emitteras 2 kg koldioxid.

To analyse a system from an environmental/energy perspective, different conceptual indicators can be used as a base. This is a short presentation of the thermodynamic concept Energy, in comparison with Emergy, Exergy (Work energy) and Embodied energy and how they reflect an “energy memory” or historical energy use in a resource/matter. From a thermodynamic perspective Energy has a clear definition referring to what 1 J actually is. The emergy unit 1 sej is more difficult to capture, but can be viewed as an attempt to reflect the total energy input (based in solar radiation). The Exergy value in matter is thermodynamically defined as energy stored in the molecular structure. The idea to use this as an indicator of environmental load is logical in the sense that the energy stored in the structure needs to correspond to the energy needed to shape the structure, but of course it does not say anything about the efficiency between input energy and stored energy. Embodied energy is often defined as the energy needed in all the processes involved in a production process (or similar). It can be compared to an LCA energy value of matter. The embodied energy is thus the sum of inputs following a production process. It is in way part of the Emergy value for the same process/matter, disregarding primary energy input (solar radiation) and normally labor and other indirect consumers. From an engineering perspective there are no limitations in the use of energy in an analysis. Using the Emergy concept means we transfer measures of energy as Joule into sej, and it is more difficult to follow the actual process energy efficiency. By applying the Emergy concept we might be able to capture a “philosophical dimension” as a quantification of an energy memory in a system resource, but the drawback is we cannot use the quantification and relate to the physical reality when it comes to analysing alternative system efficinencies. The aim with an analysis is the base for the choice of suitable indicator. My conclusion is that an Emergy analysis is interesting, but often lacks direct relation to the basic engineering concepts when it comes to detailed analysis of the system efficiency as a base for improvements or comparisons of alternate use. I therefore find it difficult to find applications for how to use the results from an Emergy analysis, which probably is due to my engineering background and the fact that my references are the normal energy concepts.

Syftet med denna rapport är att belysa processen att föra över det internationella Paris-klimatavtalet från 2015 till först nationell nivå och sedan vidare till regional (Jämtlands län) och slutligen till kommunal nivå (Ragunda). Avsikten med rapporten är inte att med precision analysera situationen, utan vår ambition är snarare att lyfta fram olika frågeställningar som kan utgöra en grund för fortsatt reflektion och diskussion. Svårigheterna att möta kraven på kontinuerlig reduktion av klimatrelaterade utsläpp är omfattande och lösningsvägarna ännu delvis okända, vilket i sig gör att man måste uppvisa stor uthållighet med ett mycket långsiktigt arbete. Vi har inom ramen för Interreg-projekt SMICE[1] deltagit i arbetet med framtagandet av Region Jämtland Härjedalens Energi- och klimatstrategi för 2020-2030, vid lanseringen av densamma samt i närmare dialog med representanter för en av åtta kommuner i regionen, Ragunda kommun. Vad gäller Ragunda kommun kan studien inte påvisa någon förändring i kommunens styrning och påverkan i den ekonomiska styrningen, detta gäller för kommunens budget för 2020 samt det pågående budgetarbetet för 2021. Intentionerna i energi- och klimatstrategin visar sig ännu inte i någon större utsträckning i kommunens verksamhet, trots en vilja bland politiker och tjänstemän att bidra till måluppfyllelse. De förändringar som beslutsfattare önskar ske i vårt samhälle bromsas i den kommunala kontexten av en rad hindrande faktorer. En slutsats från rapporten är att det finns en klar prioriteringsproblematik mellan klimatrelaterade mål och rena välfärdsmål. Det som ytterligare förvärrar denna problematik är att förutsättningar för kollektiva samverkanslösningar i glesbygd är sämre jämfört med förutsättningarna för tätbefolkade områden. En annan slutsats är att det är svårt att svara på frågan vilken insats eller aktivitet som är mest klimatoptimal. Ofta beror svaret på hur frågan ställs. Denna problematik gör att det kan vara svårt att på kommunal nivå ta beslut som faktiskt gynnar klimatet och miljön på både kort och lång sikt. [1][1] Samskapande Mittnordisk Innovationsarena för Cirkulär Ekonomi (SMICE) är ett Interreg projekt med syfte att hitta sätt att accelerera omställningen i Jämtland-Härjedalen och Tröndelag mot “ett grönt skifte”. Projektet har utforskat samskapande och har med en bred ansats sökt sammankoppla näringsliv, medborgare och aktörer i innovationssystemet för att utveckla aktiviteter som stärker cirkulära ekonomi. Projektettid har pågått perioden 2017–2020.

An analysis of energy and material flows has been elaborated for the Swedish region Jämtland with the aim of monitoring and comparing regional sustainability by following the work energy flow method developed in a study of the Danish island of Samsø (Nielsen & Jørgensen, 2011). In the region of Jämtland about 46,000 TJ of energy flows into society, of which 88% is renewable. From this an amount corresponding to 30,800 TJ is exported as electricity from the region, while another 410 TJ is exported as waste to be incinerated. The remaining part, about 15,200 TJ (63% renewable), drives Jämtland. From an energy flow perspective, the most important production from the region, apart from electricity production, is biomass from the forest: 49,000 TJ estimated as energy content in the biomass harvested. Another 55,000 TJ is added to the standing biomass every year as forest growth (only productive forest land area has been calculated). Some suggested indices of sustainability have been calculated and Jämtland shows high values. However, it will be a challenge to transform the quite large transport sector of Jämtland, and therefore the potential to become fully sustainable (ref to indexes used for the Samsø study) might not be quite as high. In order to reduce the use of non-renewable energy, a major conversion of the transport fleet is needed, and this should be given high priority. The private sector is the largest single user of non-renewable energy (2,200 TJ). One successful transition is the Swedish diesel mix with 19% FAME/HVO derived from vegetable or animal sources and regarded as renewable. The consumption of FAME/HVO is predicted to increase significantly, increasing the importance of the forest as a source. A sustainability analysis based at work energy flows shows for both Samsø and Jämtland that large natural resources producing a high work energy output combined with low work energy use due to low population density, gives high sustainability indicators. This indicates that regions with high population density and the absence of natural resources (high import), as in most regions in the world, will show low sustainability indicators.

Models showing the anthropogenic and natural flows of two sustainability indicators; carbon based GHG and energy (as work energy) have been made for the Swedish region Jämtland. The methodology used was inspired by the study sustainability analysis conducted on the small Danish island Samsø using the above two indicators. The aim was to upscale the methodology used for Samsø and make necessary adaptations for Jämtland in order to be able to evaluate sustainability in terms of global warming. We also wanted to study the linkages between research, education and regional sustainability initiatives. Working at a regional level has advantages compared to working at a national or global level, as socio-ecological processes can be covered more extensively to reach a deeper understanding of practical aspects. In parallel to this we have also been participating in local and regional sustainability activities to increase our understanding of practical approaches and human behaviour. Studies of the energy flows in Jämtland show that 46,000 TJ (88% renewable) flows into the region and about 31,000 TJ is exported. The remaining 15,000 TJ (63% renewable) drives ‘the machine Jämtland’. Added to this is about 4000TJ as matter. The total global warming potential (GWP20) impact of Jämtland (as carbon dioxide equivalents, CO 2eq ) indicating influence on the global mean temperature as radiative forcing) is an annual uptake of 2.4 Mton. The total regional emissions, as CO 2eq, from anthropogenic activities, including consumption, are 1500 kton. The region has large emissions of methane, 80kton (6700 kton CO 2eq ), mainly from mires, lakes and animals but also large uptakes of CO2 from assimilation in woody biomass. Jämtland can be regarded as relatively sustainable from several perspectives, but taking the large forests and a population of only 127,000 inhabitants into consideration, the total uptake of CO 2eq is not very large and of the 15,000 TJ driving Jämtland, 37% comes from non-renewable sources. From a national (and global) perspective Jämtland needs to perform better, in view of its considerable reserves of natural resources. How to increase long-term sustainability in the region is a complex issue that requires penetration from many perspectives. Modelling results presented here needs to be interpreted in a broader sustainability context, together with regional stakeholders, to serve as a base for future knowledge development and sustainability activities. Två modeller har utvecklats för att studera antropogena och naturliga flöden av energi (exergi) och kolbaserade växthusgasflöden i Jämtland. Metodiken har inspirerats av en metodik för att göra hållbarhetsanalyser som genomförts för den lilla danska ön Samsø utifrån dessa båda indikatorer. Att arbeta på regional nivå har fördelar gentemot att arbeta på en nationell eller global nivå eftersom man har större möjligheter att gå ned på djupet både gällande samhälleliga processer och ekologiska processer. Kopplingen mellan siffror och faktiska skeenden blir tydligare. Parallellt med arbetet med de regionala modellerna har vi också deltagit i lokalt och regionalt arbete för att förståelsen omkring praktiska angreppssätt och mänskligt beteende. Studien av energiflöden i Jämtland visar att 46.000 TJ (varav 88% förnyelsebart) flödar in i regionen och 31.000 TJ exporteras ut och att resterande 15.000 TJ (varav 63% förnyelsebart) driver maskineriet Jämtland. Till detta kommer omkring 4000 TJ i form av material. Den totala GWP20-påverkan från Jämtland är ’kylande’ och motsvarar ett upptag av koldioxid-ekvivalenter årligen på 2.4 Mton, vilket ungefär motsvarar emissionen från225.000 genomsnittssvenskar. De totala antropogena emissionerna av CO 2eq , inklusive konsumtion, är 1500 kton. Regionen uppvisar betydande emissioner av metan, 80 kton (motsvarande 6700 kton CO 2eq ) från sjöar, myrar och våtmarker samt djur. Jämtland kan ur flera perspektiv betraktas som relativt hållbart, men tar man de enorma skogsarealerna och den i ett internationellt perspektiv blygsamma befolkningen på 127 000 personer i beaktande är hållbarheten mindre övertygande. Vidare är 37% av den energi som driver Jämtland faktiskt icke-förnyelsebar. Sett ur ett globalt perspektiv och med hänvisning till Jämtlands enorma naturresurser behöver Jämtland prestera bättre. Hur man skall kunna öka den långsiktiga hållbarheten är en komplex fråga som kräver belysning från flera olika perspektiv. Resultat som de som presenteras här måste tolkas tillsammans med regionala intressenter i ett bredare hållbarhetssammanhang för att kunna utarbeta lämpliga implementeringsstrategier. Vid tidpunkten för framläggningen av avhandlingen var följande delarbete opublicerat: delarbete 4 (manuskript).At the time of the defence the following paper was unpublished: paper 4 (manuscript).

In his book “Environment, Power, and Society” (1971) H.T. Odum introduced a picture of the energy metabolism of a city based on Wolman's paper from 1965 (Sci. Am., 213: 179-190). With the development of the emergy analysis--a branch of energy systems accounting--several authors have contributed to develop quantitative measures of HT Odum’s picture, which from many perspectives are diverging from traditional energy studies. In this paper, studies using emergy analysis to study cities are reviewed. The research regarding emergy and cities had during the period 1975-1995 its focus on cities in the United States, e.g. Miami, Jacksonville, San Francisco and Chicago. The research during 1995-2005 was almost exclusively focused on Taipei. From approximately 2006 up till 2015 the research focus has been on Chinese cities; Macao, Beijing and 37 other Chinese cities have been investigated. But there are resent also studies made on Rome (Italy) and Montreal (Canada). Studies up to about 2007/2008 were generally concerned with understanding spatial aspects of the cities investigated. After that, evaluating the sustainability of cities has become a main research focus.

Consciousness and the feeling of existence have yet not been fully explained. There are interesting arguments from panpsychist as well as from eliminative materialistic (neuroscientific) positions. A panpsychist perspective is normally one where the innermost part of the physical world consists of some kind of mental entities or experiences, while the materialistic perspective claim such entities are only material (non-mental). In between these two positions there are numerous ideas how consciousness is to be explained. As long as no final explanation has been found, we can keep on presenting theories of mind. Philosophical argumentation will however not be sufficient to validate a specific standpoint. I argue in this paper that the problem of consciousness should not be isolated as a separate problem as argued by Chalmers (1995). He defines the hard problem, and also presents an outline of a theory of consciousness, claiming this covers possible solutions. Rupert Read (2008) argues the separation of the hard problem is based in the view presented by Descartes as the separation of body and mind. He says this separation only will prevent us from really finding an explanation. I claim it is not possible to infer the nature of consciousness from philosophical reasoning only, why isolating part of the problem out from such reasoning is a dead end. To understand conscious brain processes, we should strive to unify as many knowledge spheres as possible, not separate some parts as if it would be possible to tell within which sphere a solution is to be found. I am not arguing for a certain view but claim we need to be open to all possible explanations, and an Chalmers’ outline to a theory of consciousness does not at all fulfil the demands for a fundamental theory of consciousness.

Can human beings ever imagine what it is like to be a tree? Is there such a thing as ‘being’ a tree? We use empathy to position ourselves into the life of others or even as animals, plants or things. This empathy can follow Arne Næss’ ecosophy, highlighting the intrinsic value of nature, thus making us conclude there are too many human beings on earth. GH von Wright says the idea nature needs to be protected from man is the result of comprehensive environmental anthropogenic degradation; ancient man was not environmentally conscious. In this paper I argue we need to develop an environmental consciousness, at the same time we intellectually need to ethically separate a tree from a human being, thereby preventing a non-human environmentalism. Every generation and every human being needs to be environmentally awakened, at the same time learn to accept to live in a world of contradictions.

Because of a number of exceptional properties over mineral oil, ester fluids are now being used in more medium and large power transformers. At the same time, there are significant differences in the dielectric & thermal properties and other material parameters, between mineral oil and ester fluids, which need to be considered in the design, manufacture, retro – filling, and service of these transformers. This paper presents results of investigations, calculations, and measurements made to identify the special material characteristics that need to be considered when designing the core and windings of these transformers. The paper also presents the factors that must be considered in the selection, design, and determination of the voltage and current ratings of bushings and tap – changers to be used in ester fluid – filled power transformers. In addition, the paper identifies properties of ester fluids that would require different procedures in the processing of th e fluid during manufacture and impregnation of the solid insulation in the transformer. The factors that should be considered when an old mineral oil – filled power transformer is to be retro – filled with an ester fluid are presented. These allow the transformer to benefit from the advantages of the ester fluid but not negatively impact its performance and reliability during future years of service. During transformer service, some oil quality parameters of ester fluids; such as power factor, acidity, interfacial tension, etc do not reflect the same correlation to fluid dielectric or thermal performance as they do in mineral oil. Also, some diagnostic parameters which determine the condition of the solid insulation in a mineral oil - filled power transformers will need to be considered differently in relationship to the different properties of ester fluids. Finally, the paper presents how the advantageous property of longer life of cellulose in ester fluids could be evaluated and benefited from, resulting in more optimized design of ester fluid – filled power transformers.