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Immune checkpoint inhibitors are widely used anticancer therapies 1 that can cause morbid and potentially fatal immune-related adverse events such as immune-related myocarditis (irMyocarditis) 2-5 . The pathogenesis of irMyocarditis and its relationship to antitumour immunity remain poorly understood. Here we sought to define immune responses in heart, tumour and blood in patients with irMyocarditis by leveraging single-cell RNA sequencing coupled with T cell receptor (TCR) sequencing, microscopy and proteomics analyses of samples from 28 patients with irMyocarditis and 41 unaffected individuals. Analyses of 84,576 cardiac cells by single-cell RNA sequencing combined with multiplexed microscopy demonstrated increased frequencies and co-localization of cytotoxic T cells, conventional dendritic cells and inflammatory fibroblasts in irMyocarditis heart tissue. Analyses of 366,066 blood cells revealed decreased frequencies of plasmacytoid dendritic cells, conventional dendritic cells and B lineage cells but an increased frequency of other mononuclear phagocytes in irMyocarditis. Fifty-two heart-expanded TCR clones from eight patients did not recognize the putative cardiac autoantigens α-myosin, troponin I or troponin T. Additionally, TCRs enriched in heart tissue were largely nonoverlapping with those enriched in paired tumour tissue. The presence of heart-expanded TCRs in a cycling blood CD8 T cell population was associated with fatal irMyocarditis case status. Collectively, these findings highlight crucial biology driving irMyocarditis and identify putative biomarkers., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

Pregnancy is a risk factor for increased severity of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other respiratory infections, but the mechanisms underlying this risk are poorly understood. To gain insight into the role of pregnancy in modulating immune responses at baseline and upon SARS-CoV-2 infection, we collected peripheral blood mononuclear cells and plasma from 226 women, including 152 pregnant individuals and 74 non-pregnant women. We find that SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with altered T cell responses in pregnant women, including a clonal expansion of CD4-expressing CD8 + T cells, diminished interferon responses, and profound suppression of monocyte function. We also identify shifts in cytokine and chemokine levels in the sera of pregnant individuals, including a robust increase of interleukin-27, known to drive T cell exhaustion. Our findings reveal nuanced pregnancy-associated immune responses, which may contribute to the increased susceptibility of pregnant individuals to viral respiratory infection., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests A.-C.V. has a financial interest in 10X Genomics. The company designs and manufactures gene-sequencing technology for use in research, and such technology is being used in this research. A.-C.V.’s interests were reviewed by The Massachusetts General Hospital and Mass General Brigham in accordance with their institutional policies. J.R.H. consults for CJ CheilJedang and Interon Laboratories. A.G.E. consults for Mirvie, Inc. outside of this work and receives research funding from Merck Pharmaceuticals outside of this work. K.J.G. has served as a consultant for BillionToOne, Aetion, Roche, and Janssen Global Services outside of this work., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has revolutionized oncology, but treatments are limited by immune-related adverse events, including checkpoint inhibitor colitis (irColitis). Little is understood about the pathogenic mechanisms driving irColitis, which does not readily occur in model organisms, such as mice. To define molecular drivers of irColitis, we used single-cell multi-omics to profile approximately 300,000 cells from the colon mucosa and blood of 13 patients with cancer who developed irColitis (nine on anti-PD-1 or anti-CTLA-4 monotherapy and four on dual ICI therapy; most patients had skin or lung cancer), eight controls on ICI therapy and eight healthy controls. Patients with irColitis showed expanded mucosal Tregs, ITGAE Hi CD8 tissue-resident memory T cells expressing CXCL13 and Th17 gene programs and recirculating ITGB2 Hi CD8 T cells. Cytotoxic GNLY Hi CD4 T cells, recirculating ITGB2 Hi CD8 T cells and endothelial cells expressing hypoxia gene programs were further expanded in colitis associated with anti-PD-1/CTLA-4 therapy compared to anti-PD-1 therapy. Luminal epithelial cells in patients with irColitis expressed PCSK9, PD-L1 and interferon-induced signatures associated with apoptosis, increased cell turnover and malabsorption. Together, these data suggest roles for circulating T cells and epithelial-immune crosstalk critical to PD-1/CTLA-4-dependent tolerance and barrier function and identify potential therapeutic targets for irColitis., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.)

Rheumatoid arthritis is a prototypical autoimmune disease that causes joint inflammation and destruction 1 . There is currently no cure for rheumatoid arthritis, and the effectiveness of treatments varies across patients, suggesting an undefined pathogenic diversity 1,2 . Here, to deconstruct the cell states and pathways that characterize this pathogenic heterogeneity, we profiled the full spectrum of cells in inflamed synovium from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. We used multi-modal single-cell RNA-sequencing and surface protein data coupled with histology of synovial tissue from 79 donors to build single-cell atlas of rheumatoid arthritis synovial tissue that includes more than 314,000 cells. We stratified tissues into six groups, referred to as cell-type abundance phenotypes (CTAPs), each characterized by selectively enriched cell states. These CTAPs demonstrate the diversity of synovial inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis, ranging from samples enriched for T and B cells to those largely lacking lymphocytes. Disease-relevant cell states, cytokines, risk genes, histology and serology metrics are associated with particular CTAPs. CTAPs are dynamic and can predict treatment response, highlighting the clinical utility of classifying rheumatoid arthritis synovial phenotypes. This comprehensive atlas and molecular, tissue-based stratification of rheumatoid arthritis synovial tissue reveal new insights into rheumatoid arthritis pathology and heterogeneity that could inform novel targeted treatments., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Asthma is a chronic disease most commonly associated with allergy and type 2 inflammation. However, the mechanisms that link airway inflammation to the structural changes that define asthma are incompletely understood. Using a human model of allergen-induced asthma exacerbation, we compared the lower airway mucosa in allergic asthmatics and allergic non-asthmatic controls using single-cell RNA sequencing. In response to allergen, the asthmatic airway epithelium was highly dynamic and up-regulated genes involved in matrix degradation, mucus metaplasia, and glycolysis while failing to induce injury-repair and antioxidant pathways observed in controls. IL9 -expressing pathogenic T H 2 cells were specific to asthmatic airways and were only observed after allergen challenge. Additionally, conventional type 2 dendritic cells (DC2 that express CD1C ) and CCR2 -expressing monocyte-derived cells (MCs) were uniquely enriched in asthmatics after allergen, with up-regulation of genes that sustain type 2 inflammation and promote pathologic airway remodeling. In contrast, allergic controls were enriched for macrophage-like MCs that up-regulated tissue repair programs after allergen challenge, suggesting that these populations may protect against asthmatic airway remodeling. Cellular interaction analyses revealed a T H 2-mononuclear phagocyte-basal cell interactome unique to asthmatics. These pathogenic cellular circuits were characterized by type 2 programming of immune and structural cells and additional pathways that may sustain and amplify type 2 signals, including TNF family signaling, altered cellular metabolism, failure to engage antioxidant responses, and loss of growth factor signaling. Our findings therefore suggest that pathogenic effector circuits and the absence of proresolution programs drive structural airway disease in response to type 2 inflammation.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and accessory proteases (TMPRSS2 and CTSL) are needed for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) cellular entry, and their expression may shed light on viral tropism and impact across the body. We assessed the cell-type-specific expression of ACE2, TMPRSS2 and CTSL across 107 single-cell RNA-sequencing studies from different tissues. ACE2, TMPRSS2 and CTSL are coexpressed in specific subsets of respiratory epithelial cells in the nasal passages, airways and alveoli, and in cells from other organs associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) transmission or pathology. We performed a meta-analysis of 31 lung single-cell RNA-sequencing studies with 1,320,896 cells from 377 nasal, airway and lung parenchyma samples from 228 individuals. This revealed cell-type-specific associations of age, sex and smoking with expression levels of ACE2, TMPRSS2 and CTSL. Expression of entry factors increased with age and in males, including in airway secretory cells and alveolar type 2 cells. Expression programs shared by ACE2 + TMPRSS2 + cells in nasal, lung and gut tissues included genes that may mediate viral entry, key immune functions and epithelial-macrophage cross-talk, such as genes involved in the interleukin-6, interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor and complement pathways. Cell-type-specific expression patterns may contribute to the pathogenesis of COVID-19, and our work highlights putative molecular pathways for therapeutic intervention.

Intratumor heterogeneity is a common characteristic across diverse cancer types and presents challenges to current standards of treatment. Advancements in high-throughput sequencing and imaging technologies provide opportunities to identify and characterize these aspects of heterogeneity. Notably, transcriptomic profiling at a single-cell resolution enables quantitative measurements of the molecular activity that underlies the phenotypic diversity of cells within a tumor. Such high-dimensional data require computational analysis to extract relevant biological insights about the cell types and states that drive cancer development, pathogenesis, and clinical outcomes. In this review, we highlight emerging themes in the computational analysis of single-cell transcriptomics data and their applications to cancer research. We focus on downstream analytical challenges relevant to cancer research, including how to computationally perform unified analysis across many patients and disease states, distinguish neoplastic from nonneoplastic cells, infer communication with the tumor microenvironment, and delineate tumoral and microenvironmental evolution with trajectory and RNA velocity analysis. We include discussions of challenges and opportunities for future computational methodological advancements necessary to realize the translational potential of single-cell transcriptomic profiling in cancer.

Fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) are joint-lining cells that promote rheumatoid arthritis (RA) pathology. Current disease-modifying antirheumatic agents (DMARDs) operate through systemic immunosuppression. FLS-targeted approaches could potentially be combined with DMARDs to improve control of RA without increasing immunosuppression. Here, we assessed the potential of immunoglobulin-like domains 1 and 2 (Ig1&2), a decoy protein that activates the receptor tyrosine phosphatase sigma (PTPRS) on FLS, for RA therapy. We report that PTPRS expression is enriched in synovial lining RA FLS and that Ig1&2 reduces migration of RA but not osteoarthritis FLS. Administration of an Fc-fusion Ig1&2 attenuated arthritis in mice without affecting innate or adaptive immunity. Furthermore, PTPRS was down-regulated in FLS by tumor necrosis factor (TNF) via a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mediated pathway, and TNF inhibition enhanced PTPRS expression in arthritic joints. Combination of ineffective doses of TNF inhibitor and Fc-Ig1&2 reversed arthritis in mice, providing an example of synergy between FLS-targeted and immunosuppressive DMARD therapies., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial License 4.0 (CC BY-NC).)

On average, Peruvian individuals are among the shortest in the world 1 . Here we show that Native American ancestry is associated with reduced height in an ethnically diverse group of Peruvian individuals, and identify a population-specific, missense variant in the FBN1 gene (E1297G) that is significantly associated with lower height. Each copy of the minor allele (frequency of 4.7%) reduces height by 2.2 cm (4.4 cm in homozygous individuals). To our knowledge, this is the largest effect size known for a common height-associated variant. FBN1 encodes the extracellular matrix protein fibrillin 1, which is a major structural component of microfibrils. We observed less densely packed fibrillin-1-rich microfibrils with irregular edges in the skin of individuals who were homozygous for G1297 compared with individuals who were homozygous for E1297. Moreover, we show that the E1297G locus is under positive selection in non-African populations, and that the E1297 variant shows subtle evidence of positive selection specifically within the Peruvian population. This variant is also significantly more frequent in coastal Peruvian populations than in populations from the Andes or the Amazon, which suggests that short stature might be the result of adaptation to factors that are associated with the coastal environment in Peru.

It is challenging to quickly diagnose slowly progressing diseases. To prioritize multiple related diagnoses, we developed G-PROB (Genetic Probability tool) to calculate the probability of different diseases for a patient using genetic risk scores. We tested G-PROB for inflammatory arthritis-causing diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, spondyloarthropathy, psoriatic arthritis, and gout). After validating on simulated data, we tested G-PROB in three cohorts: 1211 patients identified by International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes within the eMERGE database, 245 patients identified through ICD codes and medical record review within the Partners Biobank, and 243 patients first presenting with unexplained inflammatory arthritis and with final diagnoses by record review within the Partners Biobank. Calibration of G-probabilities with disease status was high, with regression coefficients from 0.90 to 1.08 (1.00 is ideal). G-probabilities discriminated true diagnoses across the three cohorts with pooled areas under the curve (95% CI) of 0.69 (0.67 to 0.71), 0.81 (0.76 to 0.84), and 0.84 (0.81 to 0.86), respectively. For all patients, at least one disease could be ruled out, and in 45% of patients, a likely diagnosis was identified with a 64% positive predictive value. In 35% of cases, the clinician's initial diagnosis was incorrect. Initial clinical diagnosis explained 39% of the variance in final disease, which improved to 51% ( P < 0.0001) after adding G-probabilities. Converting genotype information before a clinical visit into an interpretable probability value for five different inflammatory arthritides could potentially be used to improve the diagnostic efficiency of rheumatic diseases in clinical practice., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)

The role of stromal fibroblasts in chronic inflammation is unfolding. In rheumatoid arthritis, leukocyte-derived cytokines TNF and IL-17A work together, activating fibroblasts to become a dominant source of the hallmark cytokine IL-6. However, IL-17A alone has minimal effect on fibroblasts. To identify key mediators of the synergistic response to TNF and IL-17A in human synovial fibroblasts, we performed time series, dose-response, and gene-silencing transcriptomics experiments. Here we show that in combination with TNF, IL-17A selectively induces a specific set of genes mediated by factors including cut-like homeobox 1 (CUX1) and IκBζ (NFKBIZ). In the promoters of CXCL1 , CXCL2 , and CXCL3 , we found a putative CUX1-NF-κB binding motif not found elsewhere in the genome. CUX1 and NF-κB p65 mediate transcription of these genes independent of LIFR, STAT3, STAT4, and ELF3. Transcription of NFKBIZ , encoding the atypical IκB factor IκBζ, is IL-17A dose-dependent, and IκBζ only mediates the transcriptional response to TNF and IL-17A, but not to TNF alone. In fibroblasts, IL-17A response depends on CUX1 and IκBζ to engage the NF-κB complex to produce chemoattractants for neutrophil and monocyte recruitment., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest.

The emerging diversity of single-cell RNA-seq datasets allows for the full transcriptional characterization of cell types across a wide variety of biological and clinical conditions. However, it is challenging to analyze them together, particularly when datasets are assayed with different technologies, because biological and technical differences are interspersed. We present Harmony (https://github.com/immunogenomics/harmony), an algorithm that projects cells into a shared embedding in which cells group by cell type rather than dataset-specific conditions. Harmony simultaneously accounts for multiple experimental and biological factors. In six analyses, we demonstrate the superior performance of Harmony to previously published algorithms while requiring fewer computational resources. Harmony enables the integration of ~10 6 cells on a personal computer. We apply Harmony to peripheral blood mononuclear cells from datasets with large experimental differences, five studies of pancreatic islet cells, mouse embryogenesis datasets and the integration of scRNA-seq with spatial transcriptomics data.

The molecular and cellular processes that lead to renal damage and to the heterogeneity of lupus nephritis (LN) are not well understood. We applied single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to renal biopsies from patients with LN and evaluated skin biopsies as a potential source of diagnostic and prognostic markers of renal disease. Type I interferon (IFN)-response signatures in tubular cells and keratinocytes distinguished patients with LN from healthy control subjects. Moreover, a high IFN-response signature and fibrotic signature in tubular cells were each associated with failure to respond to treatment. Analysis of tubular cells from patients with proliferative, membranous and mixed LN indicated pathways relevant to inflammation and fibrosis, which offer insight into their histologic differences. In summary, we applied scRNA-seq to LN to deconstruct its heterogeneity and identify novel targets for personalized approaches to therapy.

Lupus nephritis is a potentially fatal autoimmune disease for which the current treatment is ineffective and often toxic. To develop mechanistic hypotheses of disease, we analyzed kidney samples from patients with lupus nephritis and from healthy control subjects using single-cell RNA sequencing. Our analysis revealed 21 subsets of leukocytes active in disease, including multiple populations of myeloid cells, T cells, natural killer cells and B cells that demonstrated both pro-inflammatory responses and inflammation-resolving responses. We found evidence of local activation of B cells correlated with an age-associated B-cell signature and evidence of progressive stages of monocyte differentiation within the kidney. A clear interferon response was observed in most cells. Two chemokine receptors, CXCR4 and CX3CR1, were broadly expressed, implying a potentially central role in cell trafficking. Gene expression of immune cells in urine and kidney was highly correlated, which would suggest that urine might serve as a surrogate for kidney biopsies.

How innate T cells (ITC), including invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, and γδ T cells, maintain a poised effector state has been unclear. Here we address this question using low-input and single-cell RNA-seq of human lymphocyte populations. Unbiased transcriptomic analyses uncover a continuous 'innateness gradient', with adaptive T cells at one end, followed by MAIT, iNKT, γδ T and natural killer cells at the other end. Single-cell RNA-seq reveals four broad states of innateness, and heterogeneity within canonical innate and adaptive populations. Transcriptional and functional data show that innateness is characterized by pre-formed mRNA encoding effector functions, but impaired proliferation marked by decreased baseline expression of ribosomal genes. Together, our data shed new light on the poised state of ITC, in which innateness is defined by a transcriptionally-orchestrated trade-off between rapid cell growth and rapid effector function.

Background: Cytokines are critical to human disease and are attractive therapeutic targets given their widespread influence on gene regulation and transcription. Defining the downstream regulatory mechanisms influenced by cytokines is central to defining drug and disease mechanisms. One promising strategy is to use interactions between expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) and cytokine levels to define target genes and mechanisms., Results: In a clinical trial for anti-IL-6 in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, we measure interferon (IFN) status, anti-IL-6 drug exposure, and whole blood genome-wide gene expression at three time points. We show that repeat transcriptomic measurements increases the number of cis eQTLs identified compared to using a single time point. We observe a statistically significant enrichment of in vivo eQTL interactions with IFN status and anti-IL-6 drug exposure and find many novel interactions that have not been previously described. Finally, we find transcription factor binding motifs interrupted by eQTL interaction SNPs, which point to key regulatory mediators of these environmental stimuli and therefore potential therapeutic targets for autoimmune diseases. In particular, genes with IFN interactions are enriched for ISRE binding site motifs, while those with anti-IL-6 interactions are enriched for IRF4 motifs., Conclusions: This study highlights the potential to exploit clinical trial data to discover in vivo eQTL interactions with therapeutically relevant environmental variables.

High-dimensional single-cell analyses have improved the ability to resolve complex mixtures of cells from human disease samples; however, identifying disease-associated cell types or cell states in patient samples remains challenging because of technical and interindividual variation. Here, we present mixed-effects modeling of associations of single cells (MASC), a reverse single-cell association strategy for testing whether case-control status influences the membership of single cells in any of multiple cellular subsets while accounting for technical confounders and biological variation. Applying MASC to mass cytometry analyses of CD4 + T cells from the blood of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and controls revealed a significantly expanded population of CD4 + T cells, identified as CD27 - HLA-DR + effector memory cells, in RA patients (odds ratio, 1.7; P = 1.1 × 10 -3 ). The frequency of CD27 - HLA-DR + cells was similarly elevated in blood samples from a second RA patient cohort, and CD27 - HLA-DR + cell frequency decreased in RA patients who responded to immunosuppressive therapy. Mass cytometry and flow cytometry analyses indicated that CD27 - HLA-DR + cells were associated with RA (meta-analysis P = 2.3 × 10 -4 ). Compared to peripheral blood, synovial fluid and synovial tissue samples from RA patients contained about fivefold higher frequencies of CD27 - HLA-DR + cells, which comprised ~10% of synovial CD4 + T cells. CD27 - HLA-DR + cells expressed a distinctive effector memory transcriptomic program with T helper 1 (T H 1)- and cytotoxicity-associated features and produced abundant interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and granzyme A protein upon stimulation. We propose that MASC is a broadly applicable method to identify disease-associated cell populations in high-dimensional single-cell data., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)

Background: Detailed molecular analyses of cells from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovium hold promise in identifying cellular phenotypes that drive tissue pathology and joint damage. The Accelerating Medicines Partnership RA/SLE Network aims to deconstruct autoimmune pathology by examining cells within target tissues through multiple high-dimensional assays. Robust standardized protocols need to be developed before cellular phenotypes at a single cell level can be effectively compared across patient samples., Methods: Multiple clinical sites collected cryopreserved synovial tissue fragments from arthroplasty and synovial biopsy in a 10% DMSO solution. Mechanical and enzymatic dissociation parameters were optimized for viable cell extraction and surface protein preservation for cell sorting and mass cytometry, as well as for reproducibility in RNA sequencing (RNA-seq). Cryopreserved synovial samples were collectively analyzed at a central processing site by a custom-designed and validated 35-marker mass cytometry panel. In parallel, each sample was flow sorted into fibroblast, T-cell, B-cell, and macrophage suspensions for bulk population RNA-seq and plate-based single-cell CEL-Seq2 RNA-seq., Results: Upon dissociation, cryopreserved synovial tissue fragments yielded a high frequency of viable cells, comparable to samples undergoing immediate processing. Optimization of synovial tissue dissociation across six clinical collection sites with ~ 30 arthroplasty and ~ 20 biopsy samples yielded a consensus digestion protocol using 100 μg/ml of Liberase™ TL enzyme preparation. This protocol yielded immune and stromal cell lineages with preserved surface markers and minimized variability across replicate RNA-seq transcriptomes. Mass cytometry analysis of cells from cryopreserved synovium distinguished diverse fibroblast phenotypes, distinct populations of memory B cells and antibody-secreting cells, and multiple CD4 + and CD8 + T-cell activation states. Bulk RNA-seq of sorted cell populations demonstrated robust separation of synovial lymphocytes, fibroblasts, and macrophages. Single-cell RNA-seq produced transcriptomes of over 1000 genes/cell, including transcripts encoding characteristic lineage markers identified., Conclusions: We have established a robust protocol to acquire viable cells from cryopreserved synovial tissue with intact transcriptomes and cell surface phenotypes. A centralized pipeline to generate multiple high-dimensional analyses of synovial tissue samples collected across a collaborative network was developed. Integrated analysis of such datasets from large patient cohorts may help define molecular heterogeneity within RA pathology and identify new therapeutic targets and biomarkers.

We introduce an approach to identify disease-relevant tissues and cell types by analyzing gene expression data together with genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary statistics. Our approach uses stratified linkage disequilibrium (LD) score regression to test whether disease heritability is enriched in regions surrounding genes with the highest specific expression in a given tissue. We applied our approach to gene expression data from several sources together with GWAS summary statistics for 48 diseases and traits (average N = 169,331) and found significant tissue-specific enrichments (false discovery rate (FDR) < 5%) for 34 traits. In our analysis of multiple tissues, we detected a broad range of enrichments that recapitulated known biology. In our brain-specific analysis, significant enrichments included an enrichment of inhibitory over excitatory neurons for bipolar disorder, and excitatory over inhibitory neurons for schizophrenia and body mass index. Our results demonstrate that our polygenic approach is a powerful way to leverage gene expression data for interpreting GWAS signals.

Fibroblasts regulate tissue homeostasis, coordinate inflammatory responses, and mediate tissue damage. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), synovial fibroblasts maintain chronic inflammation which leads to joint destruction. Little is known about fibroblast heterogeneity or if aberrations in fibroblast subsets relate to pathology. Here, we show functional and transcriptional differences between fibroblast subsets from human synovial tissues using bulk transcriptomics of targeted subpopulations and single-cell transcriptomics. We identify seven fibroblast subsets with distinct surface protein phenotypes, and collapse them into three subsets by integrating transcriptomic data. One fibroblast subset, characterized by the expression of proteins podoplanin, THY1 membrane glycoprotein and cadherin-11, but lacking CD34, is threefold expanded in patients with RA relative to patients with osteoarthritis. These fibroblasts localize to the perivascular zone in inflamed synovium, secrete proinflammatory cytokines, are proliferative, and have an in vitro phenotype characteristic of invasive cells. Our strategy may be used as a template to identify pathogenic stromal cellular subsets in other complex diseases.

Purpose of Review: Stroma is a broad term referring to the connective tissue matrix in which other cells reside. It is composed of diverse cell types with functions such as extracellular matrix maintenance, blood and lymph vessel development, and effector cell recruitment. The tissue microenvironment is determined by the molecular characteristics and relative abundances of different stromal cells such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, pericytes, and mesenchymal precursor cells. Stromal cell heterogeneity is explained by embryonic developmental lineage, stages of differentiation to other cell types, and activation states. Interaction between immune and stromal cell types is critical to wound healing, cancer, and a wide range of inflammatory diseases. Here, we review recent studies of inflammatory diseases that use functional genomics and single-cell technologies to identify and characterize stromal cell types associated with pathogenesis., Recent Findings: High dimensional strategies using mRNA sequencing, mass cytometry, and fluorescence activated cell-sorting with fresh primary tissue samples are producing detailed views of what is happening in diseased tissue in rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and cancer. Fibroblasts positive for CD90 (Thy-1) are enriched in the synovium of rheumatoid arthritis patients. Single-cell RNA-seq studies will lead to more discoveries about the stroma in the near future., Summary: Stromal cells form the microenvironment of inflamed and diseased tissues. Functional genomics is producing an increasingly detailed view of subsets of stromal cells with pathogenic functions in rheumatic diseases and cancer. Future genomics studies will discover disease mechanisms by perturbing molecular pathways with chemokines and therapies known to affect patient outcomes. Functional genomics studies with large sample sizes of patient tissues will identify patient subsets with different disease phenotypes or treatment responses.

Recent research has uncovered an important role for de novo variation in neurodevelopmental disorders. Using aggregated data from 9,246 families with autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, or developmental delay, we found that ∼1/3 of de novo variants are independently present as standing variation in the Exome Aggregation Consortium's cohort of 60,706 adults, and these de novo variants do not contribute to neurodevelopmental risk. We further used a loss-of-function (LoF)-intolerance metric, pLI, to identify a subset of LoF-intolerant genes containing the observed signal of associated de novo protein-truncating variants (PTVs) in neurodevelopmental disorders. LoF-intolerant genes also carry a modest excess of inherited PTVs, although the strongest de novo-affected genes contribute little to this excess, thus suggesting that the excess of inherited risk resides in lower-penetrant genes. These findings illustrate the importance of population-based reference cohorts for the interpretation of candidate pathogenic variants, even for analyses of complex diseases and de novo variation.

CD4 + T cells are central mediators of autoimmune pathology; however, defining their key effector functions in specific autoimmune diseases remains challenging. Pathogenic CD4 + T cells within affected tissues may be identified by expression of markers of recent activation. Here we use mass cytometry to analyse activated T cells in joint tissue from patients with rheumatoid arthritis, a chronic immune-mediated arthritis that affects up to 1% of the population. This approach revealed a markedly expanded population of PD-1 hi CXCR5 - CD4 + T cells in synovium of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. However, these cells are not exhausted, despite high PD-1 expression. Rather, using multidimensional cytometry, transcriptomics, and functional assays, we define a population of PD-1 hi CXCR5 - 'peripheral helper' T (T PH ) cells that express factors enabling B-cell help, including IL-21, CXCL13, ICOS, and MAF. Like PD-1 hi CXCR5 + T follicular helper cells, T PH cells induce plasma cell differentiation in vitro through IL-21 secretion and SLAMF5 interaction (refs 3, 4). However, global transcriptomics highlight differences between T PH cells and T follicular helper cells, including altered expression of BCL6 and BLIMP1 and unique expression of chemokine receptors that direct migration to inflamed sites, such as CCR2, CX3CR1, and CCR5, in T PH cells. T PH cells appear to be uniquely poised to promote B-cell responses and antibody production within pathologically inflamed non-lymphoid tissues.

Background: Myocardial mass is a key determinant of cardiac muscle function and hypertrophy. Myocardial depolarization leading to cardiac muscle contraction is reflected by the amplitude and duration of the QRS complex on the electrocardiogram (ECG). Abnormal QRS amplitude or duration reflect changes in myocardial mass and conduction, and are associated with increased risk of heart failure and death., Objectives: This meta-analysis sought to gain insights into the genetic determinants of myocardial mass., Methods: We carried out a genome-wide association meta-analysis of 4 QRS traits in up to 73,518 individuals of European ancestry, followed by extensive biological and functional assessment., Results: We identified 52 genomic loci, of which 32 are novel, that are reliably associated with 1 or more QRS phenotypes at p < 1 × 10(-8). These loci are enriched in regions of open chromatin, histone modifications, and transcription factor binding, suggesting that they represent regions of the genome that are actively transcribed in the human heart. Pathway analyses provided evidence that these loci play a role in cardiac hypertrophy. We further highlighted 67 candidate genes at the identified loci that are preferentially expressed in cardiac tissue and associated with cardiac abnormalities in Drosophila melanogaster and Mus musculus. We validated the regulatory function of a novel variant in the SCN5A/SCN10A locus in vitro and in vivo., Conclusions: Taken together, our findings provide new insights into genes and biological pathways controlling myocardial mass and may help identify novel therapeutic targets., (Copyright © 2016 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

There is growing evidence of shared risk alleles for complex traits (pleiotropy), including autoimmune and neuropsychiatric diseases. This might be due to sharing among all individuals (whole-group pleiotropy) or a subset of individuals in a genetically heterogeneous cohort (subgroup heterogeneity). Here we describe the use of a well-powered statistic, BUHMBOX, to distinguish between those two situations using genotype data. We observed a shared genetic basis for 11 autoimmune diseases and type 1 diabetes (T1D; P < 1 × 10(-4)) and for 11 autoimmune diseases and rheumatoid arthritis (RA; P < 1 × 10(-3)). This sharing was not explained by subgroup heterogeneity (corrected PBUHMBOX > 0.2; 6,670 T1D cases and 7,279 RA cases). Genetic sharing between seronegative and seropostive RA (P < 1 × 10(-9)) had significant evidence of subgroup heterogeneity, suggesting a subgroup of seropositive-like cases within seronegative cases (PBUHMBOX = 0.008; 2,406 seronegative RA cases). We also observed a shared genetic basis for major depressive disorder (MDD) and schizophrenia (P < 1 × 10(-4)) that was not explained by subgroup heterogeneity (PBUHMBOX = 0.28; 9,238 MDD cases).

Identifying genomic annotations that differentiate causal from trait-associated variants is essential to fine mapping disease loci. Although many studies have identified non-coding functional annotations that overlap disease-associated variants, these annotations often colocalize, complicating the ability to use these annotations for fine mapping causal variation. We developed a statistical approach (Genomic Annotation Shifter [GoShifter]) to assess whether enriched annotations are able to prioritize causal variation. GoShifter defines the null distribution of an annotation overlapping an allele by locally shifting annotations; this approach is less sensitive to biases arising from local genomic structure than commonly used enrichment methods that depend on SNP matching. Local shifting also allows GoShifter to identify independent causal effects from colocalizing annotations. Using GoShifter, we confirmed that variants in expression quantitative trail loci drive gene-expression changes though DNase-I hypersensitive sites (DHSs) near transcription start sites and independently through 3' UTR regulation. We also showed that (1) 15%-36% of trait-associated loci map to DHSs independently of other annotations; (2) loci associated with breast cancer and rheumatoid arthritis harbor potentially causal variants near the summits of histone marks rather than full peak bodies; (3) variants associated with height are highly enriched in embryonic stem cell DHSs; and (4) we can effectively prioritize causal variation at specific loci., (Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: We created a fast, robust and general C+ + implementation of a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) set enrichment algorithm to identify cell types, tissues and pathways affected by risk loci. It tests trait-associated genomic loci for enrichment of specificity to conditions (cell types, tissues and pathways). We use a non-parametric statistical approach to compute empirical P-values by comparison with null SNP sets. As a proof of concept, we present novel applications of our method to four sets of genome-wide significant SNPs associated with red blood cell count, multiple sclerosis, celiac disease and HDL cholesterol., Availability and Implementation: http://broadinstitute.org/mpg/snpsea., Supplementary Information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online., (© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press.)

The QT interval, an electrocardiographic measure reflecting myocardial repolarization, is a heritable trait. QT prolongation is a risk factor for ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death (SCD) and could indicate the presence of the potentially lethal mendelian long-QT syndrome (LQTS). Using a genome-wide association and replication study in up to 100,000 individuals, we identified 35 common variant loci associated with QT interval that collectively explain ∼8-10% of QT-interval variation and highlight the importance of calcium regulation in myocardial repolarization. Rare variant analysis of 6 new QT interval-associated loci in 298 unrelated probands with LQTS identified coding variants not found in controls but of uncertain causality and therefore requiring validation. Several newly identified loci encode proteins that physically interact with other recognized repolarization proteins. Our integration of common variant association, expression and orthogonal protein-protein interaction screens provides new insights into cardiac electrophysiology and identifies new candidate genes for ventricular arrhythmias, LQTS and SCD.

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and subsequent dense-genotyping of associated loci identified over a hundred single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variants associated with the risk of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), type 1 diabetes (T1D), and celiac disease (CeD). Immunological and genetic studies suggest a role for CD4-positive effector memory T (CD+ TEM) cells in the pathogenesis of these diseases. To elucidate mechanisms of autoimmune disease alleles, we investigated molecular phenotypes in CD4+ effector memory T cells potentially affected by these variants. In a cohort of genotyped healthy individuals, we isolated high purity CD4+ TEM cells from peripheral blood, then assayed relative abundance, proliferation upon T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation, and the transcription of 215 genes within disease loci before and after stimulation. We identified 46 genes regulated by cis-acting expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL), the majority of which we detected in stimulated cells. Eleven of the 46 genes with eQTLs were previously undetected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Of 96 risk alleles of RA, T1D, and/or CeD in densely genotyped loci, eleven overlapped cis-eQTLs, of which five alleles completely explained the respective signals. A non-coding variant, rs389862A, increased proliferative response (p=4.75 × 10-8). In addition, baseline expression of seventeen genes in resting cells reliably predicted proliferative response after TCR stimulation. Strikingly, however, there was no evidence that risk alleles modulated CD4+ TEM abundance or proliferation. Our study underscores the power of examining molecular phenotypes in relevant cells and conditions for understanding pathogenic mechanisms of disease variants.

Little is known about how human genetic variation affects the responses to environmental stimuli in the context of complex diseases. Experimental and computational approaches were applied to determine the effects of genetic variation on the induction of pathogen-responsive genes in human dendritic cells. We identified 121 common genetic variants associated in cis with variation in expression responses to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide, influenza, or interferon-β (IFN-β). We localized and validated causal variants to binding sites of pathogen-activated STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) and IRF (IFN-regulatory factor) transcription factors. We also identified a common variant in IRF7 that is associated in trans with type I IFN induction in response to influenza infection. Our results reveal common alleles that explain interindividual variation in pathogen sensing and provide functional annotation for genetic variants that alter susceptibility to inflammatory diseases.