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In this paper, we investigate the potential gains in cost-effectiveness from changing the spatial scale at which nutrient reduction targets are set for the Baltic Sea, focusing on nutrientloadings associated with agriculture. Costs of achieving loadings reductions are compared across five levels of spatial scale, namely the entire Baltic Sea; the marine basin level; the country level; the watershed level; and the grid square level. A novel highly disaggregated model, which represents decreases in agricultural profits, changes in root zone N concentrations and transport to the Baltic Sea is proposed, and is then used to estimate the gains in cost-effectiveness from changing the spatial scale of nutrient reduction targets. The model includes 14 Baltic Sea marine basins, 14 countries, 117 watersheds and 19,023 10-by-10 km grid squares. A range of policy options are identified which approach the cost-effective reductions in N loadings identified by the constrained optimization model. We argue that our results have important implications for both domestic and international policy design for achieving water quality improvements where nonpoint pollution is a key stressor of water quality.

The Swedish school has been faced with a bad reputation the last decades. There are growing concerns regarding that the quality of the education has gone downhill, and reports are frequently made, stating a strain work environment for the school personnel, specifically the teachers. In combination with debates and reports, concerning the relatively low teacher wages and the notion that the status for the teacher profession, is lower today than before; have ultimately created a notion that teachers leave their occupation on these factors. The teacher turnover in Sweden is higher than their Nordic neighbours, but there are signs that the reasons regarding the turnover rate, are not fully understood. This study will try to give an insight on the factors behind the relatively high turnover rate in the teacher occupation. This study is based on a deductive approach where we have gathered empirical evidence, using semi-structured interviews. The candidates for the interviews were selected through a stratified sample, to examine why the turnover rate of the teacher occupation is high through motivational and institutional theories. The results of this paper contribute to a broader knowledge on the factors regarding the teacher turnover rate. Our theories about motivation- and institutional theory, have proven relevant to map the factors behind the turnover rate. Although our factors are significant for the subject, further extensive research will be needed on the matter, to give a more complete picture of the issue. This paper is written in Swedish. Den svenska skolan har fått ett dåligt anseende de sista decennierna. Det finns en växande oro angående att kvaliteten på undervisningen har varit fallande, och frekventa rapporter görs, som påstår att skolmiljön är ansträngd för skolans personal, specifikt lärare. I kombination med debatter och rapporter, beträffande de relativt låga lärarlönerna och uppfattningen om att statusen på läraryrket skulle vara lägre idag än förut; har skapat uppfattningen att lärare lämnar yrket av dessa faktorer. Läraromsättningen i Sverige är högre än våra nordiska grannländer, men det finns tecken på att anledningarna bakom den höga personalomsättningen, är inte fullt förstådda. Denna studie kommer försöka ge en insikt av de faktorer som ligger till grund för den relativt höga personalomsättningen bland lärare. Studien är baserad på en deduktiv ansats där vi har samlat empiriskt material, genom semi-strukturerade intervjuer. Intervjukandidaterna valdes genom ett stratifierat urval, för att undersöka varför personalomsättningen bland lärare är hög, genom motivationsteorier och institutionella teorier. Undersökningens resultat bidrar till en bredare kunskap angående faktorerna bakom den höga läraromsättningen. Våra använda teorier om motivation-och institutionsteori, har visat sig relevant för att kartlägga väsentliga faktorer bakom personalomsättningen. Trots att våra faktorer är signifikanta för ämnet, kommer det krävas ytterligare betydande forskning på området för att ge en mer komplett bild om ämnet.

An aging population is a hot topic in these times, other studies have shown that this will have some negative consequences for our society. For an example less people will have to provide for a larger part of the population, like people in retirement age. And this change in the workforce will be a difficult task to manage. However this paper is studying a possible positive side effect of the ageing population. This paper will set out to try and examine the relation between the age structure and crime, our hypothesis is that a 70-year-old is less likely to commit a crime than a 20-year-old. If this hypothesis is true, a change in a country’s age structure should show a decrease in crime rates. To study this, this paper gathered statistics from Swedish authorities for both crime rates and its population over the time period from 1975-2018 in order to see what impact the aging population have had over crime rate. The conclusion of this paper is that we can observe a pattern of decrease in crime and an increase in the age structure, more specifically the percentage of people above the age of 65 and thus confirming our hypothesis. After we examined how much of this change the age structure can explain over the crime rates, we confirmed that it does indeed have a significant part of explaining the difference between this time period.

Detta arbete handlar om en relativt ny profession på den svenska arbetsmarknaden, men desto större utomlands, nämligen sonografer. För att som röntgensjuksköterska kunna arbeta som sonograf i Sverige krävs vidareutbildning inom medicinskt ultraljud. Efter avklarad utbildning får sonografen utföra ultraljudsundersökningar på egen hand och dessutom genomföra den preliminära granskningen av undersökningen. Med ökad läkarbrist och ökade krav på mer radiografisk utredning är sonografen en resurs som kan avlasta radiologen och dom radiologiska klinikerna. Arbetet har utformats som en systematisk litteraturstudie med syftet att jämföra sonografers förmåga gällande bedömning och utlåtande gentemot radiologer och andra specialistläkare inom ultraljudsundersökningar. Författarna har sökt artiklar och studier om ämnet i flertalet databaser med hjälp av olika sökord som kan relateras till syftet. Studier och artiklar har sedan valts ut och kvalitetsgranskats för att värdesätta dess trovärdighet. Resultatet presenteras i två olika tabeller utefter två olika metoder. Sammanlagt inkluderades 13 stycken artiklar i resultatet, dessa var utförda utanför Sveriges gränser, i länder där sonografen är ett vanligt inslag i vården. Resultatet visar att sonografer håller en hög kvalité gällande bedömning och utlåtande efter utförd ultraljudsundersökning. Med hänsyn till ökad läkarbrist motiverar resultatet ökad diskussion om sonografers användningsområden och yrkesroll inom svensk sjukvård.

The main objective of this work was to develop regional settings of the NANI budgeting tool that will address the significant variation in agricultural practices and resulting nutrient accountings among European countries. NANI (Net Anthropogenic Nitrogen Inputs), first introduced by Howarth et al. (1996), estimate the human‐induced nitrogen inputs to a watershed and have been shown to be a good predictor of riverine nitrogen export at a large scale, multi‐year average basis. NANI have been calculated as the sum of four major components: atmospheric N deposition, fertilizer N application, agricultural N fixation, and net food and feed imports, which in turn are composed of crop and animal N production (negative fluxes removing N from watersheds) and animal and human N consumption (positive fluxes adding N to watersheds). Assuming approximate steady-state behavior, riverine N export is a fixed proportion of net nitrogen inputs. Similar calculations can be made for phosphorus (P) inputs, though because atmospheric deposition of P is usually considered negligible and there is no analog in P for atmospheric fixation, the calculation of Net Anthropogenic Phosphorus Inputs (NAPI) reduces to accounting for P fertilizer and P in net food/feed terms. While this document is primarily concerned with calculating NANI, we also describe the data sources and assumptions used to make the parallel calculations of NAPI. Version 2.0 of the Toolbox described in this document is an improvement of version 1.0 developed for US watersheds (http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/biogeo/nanc/nani/nani.htm; Hong et al. 2011). Version 1.0 allows the user to calculate NANI in any area within the contiguous United States (e.g., watershed, county, etc.) from nationally available databases downloadable from the Internet. The toolbox consists of a set of tools that: (1) calculate the proportions of various regions (political or gridded) in which data are collected that fall into areas of interest such as watersheds (“NANI‐GIS tools”), (2) extract and organize relevant data downloaded from web‐based datasets to be used by the accounting tools (“NANI‐extraction tools”), and (3) calculate NANI, their components, and other relevant items such as animal excretion (“NANI-.‐accounting tools”). While attempting to apply version 1.0 of the toolbox to Baltic Sea catchments, we found that the calculation of NANI in Baltic Sea catchments is more challenging than in US watersheds, mainly for two reasons: • Watersheds span international boundaries. Significant variation in agricultural practices and resulting nutrient accountings among European countries exist. For example, a substantial gradient in agricultural practices is expected among the former EU countries, new EU member states with transitional economies, and Belarus and Russia. • Gaps and uncertainties in the available data are much greater than those in the US. In general, the problem of missing information is more severe for the transitional countries, Belarus, and Russia, requiring numerous assumptions and guesswork to be made to deal with the insufficient data issue. Version 2.0 of the Toolbox describe in this document has several modules and improvements added to version 1.0 (which assumes spatially uniform agricultural practices, i.e., fixed values for all the NANI parameters, supported by the availability of well‐established and standardized datasets) to address the above difficulties. These improvements include: • Allowing spatial variation of NANI parameters (in this example, country‐specific NANI parameters) (Sections 4, 5.1, and 5.2) • Distribution of regional data (e.g., country-level crop production) into smaller spatial units (e.g., grid cells containing crop area information) (Section 5.3) • Making post‐calculation adjustments and refinements by accepting auxiliary datasets and manual calculations from the user (Section 3) In the following sections we describe the calculation of NANI and their components in the Baltic Sea catchments, with details of data availability, input preparation, and step-by‐step procedure of the use of various tools, and provide some preliminary results. In addition, Appendix 1 described parameter values used to create NAPI estimates following an accounting methodology in parallel to that for NANI.

High-latitude watersheds have been regarded as a carbon sink with soil carbon accumulating at low temperature. This sink is now believed to turn into a source, acting as positive feedback to climate warming. However, thawing permafrost soils would allow more water to percolate down to deeper soil layers where some of the carbon could be “consumed” in weathering and exported as bicarbonate to the sea. Using a hydrological mixing model showed that this could counterbalance the predicted positive feedback resulting from thawing soils. Vegetation-covered riparian zones in headwater areas appear to have a significant role for the dissolved constituent fluxes. Higher concentrations of weathering products are found in taiga and tundra rivers with larger areas of forest and peat cover in the watershed. These landscape elements can thus be regarded as “hot spots” of river loading with dissolved constituents. Comparing a regulated and an unregulated river tested the hypothesis that damming leads to a depletion of major elements also in oligotrophic river systems as a consequence of changes in landscape elements. A loss of upper soils and vegetation through inundation prevents the contact of surface waters with vegetated soil, and consequently reduces weathering fluxes. The hypothesis that the lower fluxes of dissolved silica (DSi) in the regulated river could also be explained by biological uptake was then tested using a model, and budget calculations indicate a significant reduction as a result of regulation. About 10% of this reduction can be attributed to the flooding of the fluvial corridor and the rest to diatom blooms in the reservoirs. A more detailed study of landscape elements for the headwaters of the river Luleälven showed that only 3% of the surface area has been inundated by reservoirs but ca. 37% of the deciduous forest. Such a significant loss of hot spots may indeed explain the observed lower DSi fluxes in the regulated watersheds of northern Sweden.