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Humans learn about the world through inductive reasoning, generalizing information about an individual to others in the category. Indeed, by infancy, monolingual children expect people who speak the same language (but not people who speak different languages) to be similar in their food preferences (Liberman et al., 2016). Here, we ask whether infants who are exposed to linguistic diversity are more willing to generalize information even across language-group lines. To test this, we ran an inductive inference task and collected data on exposure to linguistic diversity at the interpersonal and neighborhood levels. Infants with more linguistically diverse social networks were more likely to generalize a food preference across speakers of different languages. However, this relationship was not seen for neighborhood diversity. We discuss implications of this work on understanding the development of bias and its malleability based on early social experiences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

This study proposes a hybrid model of initial trust formation that highlights the role of social categorization and its interplay with both institutional trust and the individuating information about the party. Using data on 1,474 corporate venture capital (CVC) investments in European ventures and a case-control research design, we find that ventures more likely form initial CVC ties with investors whose parent companies are located in countries considered more trustworthy. This effect is weaker but does not disappear when social defenses safeguard ventures from misplacing trust and when there are social ties between CVC investors and ventures' independent VC investors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the Indies' significant role in Spain's economic warfare during Philip IV's reign. It challenges the perception of the American territories as peripheral participants, emphasizing their central involvement in the General Reprisal against the French during the Franco-Spanish War. The study reveals interconnected policies between the Indies and European territories, the adaptations of the reprisal scheme to suit the American settings, and the consideration of each territory's unique conditions. It also highlights the importance of the French mercantile community in Seville, their integration into the Atlantic trade, and their strategies to recover property in the American territories. Additionally, the article analyzes the introduction of rogation days in the Indies as a complementary measure, serving as a propaganda tool to otherize the French, influence public opinion, and shape perceptions of foreignness. Overall, the research enhances our understanding of Spain's economic warfare strategies and their global impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We build on the construct of collective consciousness, which reflects a view that a person can see the self as the subject that is attending, experiencing, or acting as a unitary collective agent, that is, from the perspective of “we” as opposed to “I.” Shteynberg (Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2024) proposes that collective consciousness can foster mutual trust and cooperation, thus having positive implications for both individuals and society. In this commentary, we discuss what the construct of collective consciousness might have to offer consumer researchers by considering when collective consciousness could be relevant in consumer contexts, its key psychological consequences, and how this theory could potentially build upon and interact with existing frameworks in consumer psychology. In addition, we consider some potential negative consequences of collective consciousness and point to potentially fruitful directions for future consumer research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports the results of an experiment (N = 502) investigating how speakers are socially categorized based on accent (Standard American English [SAE] or Nigerian) and race (White or Black) separately and concurrently, as well as the intergroup outcomes of such categorizations as mediated by language attitudes (status, solidary, and dynamism). Findings revealed that SAE-accented speakers were evaluated more favorably than Nigerian-accented speakers on status. Status also mediated the relationship between accent and (a) symbolic threat and (b) social distance. Additionally, Black males were rated higher on solidarity and dynamism than White males. Finally, status mediated the combined effect of the speaker's race and accent on symbolic threat, intergroup anxiety, and social distance. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial intelligence (AI) is pervading the government and transforming how public services are provided to consumers across policy areas spanning allocation of government benefits, law enforcement, risk monitoring, and the provision of services. Despite technological improvements, AI systems are fallible and may err. How do consumers respond when learning of AI failures? In 13 preregistered studies (N = 3,724) across a range of policy areas, the authors show that algorithmic failures are generalized more broadly than human failures. This effect is termed "algorithmic transference" as it is an inferential process that generalizes (i.e., transfers) information about one member of a group to another member of that same group. Rather than reflecting generalized algorithm aversion, algorithmic transference is rooted in social categorization: it stems from how people perceive a group of AI systems versus a group of humans. Because AI systems are perceived as more homogeneous than people, failure information about one AI algorithm is transferred to another algorithm to a greater extent than failure information about a person is transferred to another person. Capturing AI's impact on consumers and societies, these results show how the premature or mismanaged deployment of faulty AI technologies may undermine the very institutions that AI systems are meant to modernize. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Social Sciences Studies is the property of Social Sciences Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Does the act of remembering or not remembering convey socially relevant information? The present work explored this question by examining the role flashbulb memories (FBMs) and memories for personal (MPEs) events play in social categorization and social identification. Study 1 investigated the extent to which Americans believe FBMs of both domestic and international public events and memories for life-script events should be remembered by an American or a Briton. Study 2 built on Study 1 and examined whether these normative expectations serve as a basis for identifying someone as "American," "American immigrant," "Black American," "female," "religious," or "politically conservative." Results indicate that FBMs and MPEs affect social categorization and identification in distinctive ways. The role of FBMs as markers of social identity is discussed. General Audience Summary: People will often remember the circumstances in which they learned of a public, emotionally charged event. Often referred to as flashbulb memories (FBMs), they are of intense interest to the general public, as well as the psychological community, with commentators often noting that an event is such that people will never forget where they learned of it. Since Brown and Kulik's pioneering article on FBMs, psychologists have intensively explored the conditions under which these memories are formed, their accuracy, and their phenomenological features. Less studied are the social functions of FBMs. As Brown and Kulik noted, and have been amply demonstrated since then, FBMs are community-specific and widely held within the affected community. Black Americans, for instance, tend to have FBMs of learning of the assassination of Malcolm X, whereas White Americans do not. The present article explores the possibility that FBMs' community-specificity and widespread nature within an affected community may allow them to serve as markers of community membership. A person, for instance, might not be viewed as a "good" American if they do not have a FBM of the attack of September 11, 2001. The present article explores this possibility by first investigating the extent to which Americans believe FBMs of both domestic and international public events and memories for life-script events should be remembered by an American or a Briton. It then examines whether these normative expectations serve as a basis for social categorization. Results indicate that FBMs and MPEs affect social categorization and identification in distinctive ways. People may find FBMs of interest, in part, because of their function as markers of social identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents evidence that social categorization affects spontaneous level‐2 visual perspective taking (L2PT) differently depending on the type of social category in 8‐year‐old. In Experiment 1 (N = 46), children were paired with same‐age peers, who belonged to the same or a different minimal group. In Experiment 2 (N = 42) children participated with an adult confederate, who either shared their cultural group membership or was a member of an out‐group (inferred from a linguistic cue, accent). In Experiment 3 (N = 80), children were acting together with an adult confederate who was at the same time a member of the same or a different minimal group and shared their linguistic membership. This allowed us to investigate how these social categories influence each other. Spontaneous L2PT was not affected by the minimal group manipulation. However, accent weakened L2PT when it implied that the task partner belonged to an out‐group. When both category cues were present, accent—that could be an indicator of shared knowledge attribution—played a more pronounced role in attenuating L2PT. It is argued that social categories that are indicative of the partner's knowledge states but not ad hoc groups influence spontaneous mentalizing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, gender-ambiguous (nonbinary) voices have been added to voice assistants to combat gender stereotypes and foster inclusion. However, if people react negatively to such voices, these laudable efforts may be counterproductive. In five preregistered studies (N = 3,684 adult participants) we found that people do react negatively, rating products described by narrators with gender-ambiguous voices less favorably than when they are described by clearly male or female narrators. The voices create a feeling of unease, or social disfluency, that affects evaluations of the products being described. These effects are best explained by low familiarity with voices that sound ambiguous. Thus, initial negative reactions can be overcome with more exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans' capacity to predict actions and to socially categorize individuals is at the basis of social cognition. Such capacities emerge in early infancy. By 6months of age, infants predict others' reaching actions considering others' epistemic state. At a similar age, infants are biased to attend to and interact with more familiar individuals, considering adult-like social categories such as the language people speak. We report that these two core processes are interrelated early on in infancy. In a belief-based action prediction task, 6-month-old infants (males and females) presented with a native speaker generated online predictions about the agent's actions, as revealed by the activation of participants' sensorimotor areas before the agent's movement. However, infants who were presented with a foreign speaker did not recruit their motor system before the agent's action. The eyetracker analysis provided further evidence that linguistic group familiarity influences how infants predict others' actions, as only infants presented with a native speaker modified their attention to the stimuli as a function of the agent's forthcoming behavior. The current findings suggest that infants' emerging capacity to predict others' actions is modulated by social cues, such as others' linguistic group. A facilitation to predict and encode the actions of native speakers relative to foreign speakers may explain, in part, why infants preferentially attend to, imitate, and learn from the actions of native speakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social perceivers tend to exaggerate existing differences between groups, a phenomenon known as intergroup accentuation. In two preregistered experiments, we tested the hypothesis that accentuation originates in the initial learning of information about a novel group. In both experiments, perceivers exaggerated differences between two fictitious social groups that differed probabilistically in two dimensional traits. As hypothesized, accentuation was stronger for the group encountered second, confirming that accentuation originates partly in processes operating during the acquisition of group information. However, accentuation was also robust for the group encountered first, suggesting that it also occurs 'backward' even when group learning was unbiased. We discuss implications for stereotype formation generally and the perception of social minorities and out‐groups specifically. As these groups are often encountered second in social reality, stereotypes of them might be particularly polarized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The present research investigates whether ingroup-outgroup distinction salience moderates automatic intergroup bias (i.e., more positive evaluations of ingroup targets relative to outgroup targets) toward multiply categorizable social targets. Methods: In two experiments, we manipulated the salience of participants' social identity based on age vs. race, respectively. Afterwards, we measured automatic evaluations of social targets varying in age and race. Results: Young White participants exhibited higher automatic race bias when their racial identity (i.e., White in contrast to Black) was salient. Conversely, they exhibited higher automatic age bias when their age identity (i.e., young in contrast to old) was salient. Discussion: Going beyond previous research, we show that it is sufficient to direct participants' attention to their ingroup-identity in contrast to the respective outgroup to cause changes in automatic intergroup bias. This is important because it provides a strong test of the hypothesis that ingroupoutgroup distinction salience moderates automatic intergroup bias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Face templates can be experimentally manipulated, and category-contingent aftereffects suggest discrete templates across social groups. We tested whether 1) explicit religious labels, 2) food preferences, and 3) country of origin would support religion-contingent aftereffects across Christians and Muslims face sets. While viewing face images, ninety-three participants heard audio that stated either 1) a character's religious identity, 2) preferred food, or 3) country of origin. Participants viewed contracted Christian faces and expanded Muslim faces during the training phase. To measure adaptation, before and after the training phases, participants selected the face out of a pair of expanded and contracted Christian or Muslim faces that they found more attractive. Contingent aftereffects were found in the religious explicit (t(30) = 2.49, p = 0.02, Cohen's d = 0.58) and food conditions (t(30) = −3.77, p

Immigrants and racial minorities continue to face hiring discrimination. The current study examined the influence of accent, race, as well as perceived Americanness on hiring evaluations. White US adults (N = 375) were randomly assigned to one of six conditions based on two factors: (a) accent (standard versus foreign) and (b) race (White, Black, and Asian). Accented speakers were perceived to be less American and were subsequently less likely to be hired. However, this effect was stronger or only emerged for White and Black candidates. The perception and evaluation of the Asian candidate were not explained by perceived Americanness. Implications for being perceived as American are discussed.

Individuals generally hold multiple, and sometimes stereotypically contrasted, group memberships which may change depending on uncontrollable contextual factors. For instance, if someone is a foreigner, there exist certain social stereotypes regarding their nationality which may influence others' conceptualizations. However, how might an intersection of memberships, such as being both foreign and gay, affect natives' perceptions of them when these stereotypes may not converge? Across four experiments, the stereotypes attributed to generalized and specific groups were examined to better understand intersectional prototypicalities. Results indicated certain cases in which immigrants may be "de-immigrantized", or, perceived as less stereotypically immigrant. More specifically, Portuguese participants viewed gay immigrants as less prototypically immigrant, but did not view lesbian immigrants as less prototypically immigrant, bringing into question the complexity of double minority conceptualizations. Additionally, individuals from nationalities with a higher perceived percentage of gays or lesbians in their population (e.g., Brazil and France) were generally viewed as less prototypically immigrant than individuals from nationalities with a lower perceived percentage of gays or lesbians in their population (e.g., India and Japan). Conclusions provide support for intersectional theories and yield additional insights into the categorization of multiple minority groups on the basis of sexuality and nationality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental studies in the literature have shown that individuals are willing to sacrifice their own resources to punish free-riders even if there is no possibility to get reward for this behavior. The aim of the current study is to examine whether individuals have preferences to punish violators when the punishment is costly for themselves and to test whether this preference is affected by social categorization (i.e., ingroup-outgroup settings). For these aims we conducted two experiments. In both studies the Third-Party Punishment Game was used. Study 1 in which a 2 (distributor's identity: ingroup vs. outgroup) x 2 (recipient's identity: ingroup vs. outgroup) x 2 (fairness: equal vs. unequal) within-subjects design was used consists of 38 participants and Study 2 in which a mixed design was used consists of 174 participants. It was found in both studies that participants spent higher amounts to punish unfair players than fair players. Additionally, in Study 2 participants were found to prefer to altruistically punish the perpetrator more harshly when the victim was an ingroup member. The findings suggest that individuals attempt to maintain cooperative behavior norms by engaging in costly punishment of selfish individuals, regardless of their group membership. However, the stricter reactions to unfairness directed to an ingroup member show that participants favor ingroup members over outgroup members in line with the social identity literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is abundant evidence that emotion categorization is influenced by the social category membership of target faces, with target sex and target race modulating the ease with which perceivers can categorize happy and angry emotional expressions. However, theoretical interpretation of these findings is constrained by gender and race imbalances in both the participant samples and target faces typically used when demonstrating these effects (e.g., most participants have been White women and most Black targets have been men). Across seven experiments, the current research used gender-matched samples (Experiments 1a and 1b), gender- and racial identity-matched samples (Experiments 2a and 2b), and manipulations of social context (Experiments 3a, 3b, and 4) to establish whether emotion categorization is influenced by interactions between the social category membership of perceivers and target faces. Supporting this idea, we found the presence and size of the happy face advantage were influenced by interactions between perceivers and target social categories, with reliable happy face advantages in reaction times for ingroup targets but not necessarily for outgroup targets. White targets and female targets were the only categories associated with a reliable happy face advantage that was independent of perceiver category. The interactions between perceiver and target social category were eliminated when targets were blocked by social category (e.g., a block of all White female targets; Experiments 3a and 3b) and accentuated when targets were associated with additional category information (i.e., ingroup/outgroup nationality; Experiment 4). These findings support the possibility that contextually sensitive intergroup processes influence emotion categorization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explains the socio-psychological factors that influence public administrators' governance choices when dealing with not-for-profit (NFP) and for-profit (FP) providers. In particular, it highlights the use of stereotypes in public administrators' categorization of NFP and FP motives and expected behaviours, and whether they then prioritize the use of trust or control in the governance of the contractual arrangements. The main implication for public sector managers is that the tendency to social categorization and bias can be an issue in creating the proper mechanisms to ensure the delivery of effective services. In contracting out, the use of categorization by public administrators can reduce their propensity to trust those who are perceived as an outgroup, and hence result in them adopting more formal control mechanisms, while for those perceived as an ingroup their inclination to trust will result in the use of less formal control mechanisms. This article introduces socio-psychological factors that influence public administrators' stereotypes and governance choices when dealing with NFPs and FPs. The context of this research is the contracting of social services in Italy and the data was sourced from multiple case study sites. Results show that, in contracting out, categorization by one of the parties can increase or reduce trust. This early trust/suspicion can have a substantial effect on future relationships. Prejudices become a self-fulfilling prophecy where the initial categorization influences the subsequent interactions. The ex ante tendency to social categorization and bias can be an issue in creating the proper mechanisms to have both parties working optimally when social services are contracted out. As outsourcing relationships are organized through the definition and elaboration of collective self-categories and mental categories that are taken for granted, categorization affects judgments and actions in such a way that the relationship can be 'frozen' within stereotypes. Public administrators should be aware of their preconceived attitudes to the provider based on the provider type and ensure that these attitudes do not lead to sub-optimal contracting behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender categorization and stereotyping can lead to discrimination. Researchers have mostly studied cisgender, gender-conforming individuals as the targets when examining these processes. In two factorial survey experiments, we investigated gender categorization and stereotyping of gender-ambiguous targets based on facial features and behavioral information. We manipulated femininity/masculinity/ambiguity of face, expression, and occupation. Participants completed a gender categorization task, and stereotype and attitude measures. The findings indicated that face was most influential for categorization: When face was unambiguously masculine or feminine, participants mostly categorized targets as male or female, respectively. In these cases, expression and occupation had little influence on categorization. When face was ambiguous, this additional information significantly influenced categorization. Nonbinary categorization was more likely for ambiguous faces, and most likely for ambiguous faces combined with ambiguous expression and ambiguous or feminine occupation. Our findings suggest that categorizing gender-ambiguous targets is more complex compared to clearly gendered targets. Primarily relying on face when it appears clearly gendered likely causes categorization errors when encountering TGNC individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presenting pictures of faces side by side is a common paradigm to assess infants' attentional biases according to social categories, such as gender, race, and language. However, seeing static faces does not represent infants' typical experience of the social world, which involves people in motion and performing actions. Here, we assessed infants' looking preferences for native over foreign language speakers in two social contexts: the presentation of static faces and the presentation of people performing instrumental actions. In addition, we tested infants' preferential looking at 5 and 9 months of age to assess whether their pattern of preferential looking changes across development. The results of 5-month-old infants replicated and extended previous findings by showing that, at this age, infants typically look longer at people who previously spoke their native language. As found for other social categories such as race and gender, this familiarity-based looking preference was not evident at 9 months of age when infants were presented with static faces. However, when presented with more informative dynamic events, 9-month-old infants showed a temporally aligned preference for the native over the foreign language speaker. Specifically, infants' looking preference was time-locked to the completion of the action goal: when speakers grasped and lifted a toy. These results suggest potentially a familiarity-based preference toward native language speakers around 5 months of age, which may later develop into a more strategic selective response in service of information-seeking. Public Significance Statement: This study suggests that babies are prone to look at speakers of their native language over speakers of a foreign language. At 5 months of age, this tendency may be driven by a generic preference to look at people with more familiar attributes, but at 9 months, our results suggest infants go beyond generic preference and expect that the actions of native language speakers will carry more relevant information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People often form impressions of others in contexts where both relatively static demographic cues (e.g., age, race, gender) and situationally flexible, dynamic cues (e.g., emotion expressions) are available. We examined whether and how attending to gender (male, female) versus emotion expression (neutral, smiling) affects threat-based person impressions. In three experiments, we heightened the salience of either gender categories or emotion categories in a sequential priming task. Category salience consistently moderated the use of both categories in threat impressions. The effect of gender (emotion) categories was stronger when attention was directed to gender (emotion) than when attention was directed to emotion (gender); however, category salience did not eliminate the use of either category. Implications for models of person construal and bias in person impressions are discussed.

What impacts people's willingness to restrict the civil liberties of suspected terrorists? For decades, social scientists have studied the dynamics that shape political tolerance, and increasingly, scholars examine the effects of terrorism for people's willingness to limit civil liberties in pursuit of security. We argue that the social categorization of a suspected terrorist (e.g., White Nationalist or Islamic Fundamentalist) is consequential for civil liberty attitudes in the United States, but, importantly, we theorize that the effects are contingent on partisanship. We implement question-wording experiments in four surveys. Three of the studies are comprised of national samples implemented at different points in time; a fourth sample incorporates a targeted sample of U.S. military servicemembers. We find evidence that partisanship moderates the effects of terrorist categorization such that Republicans are less likely to restrict the civil liberties of White Nationalists than unspecified suspected terrorists. By contrast, Democrats are more inclined to restrict the civil liberties of White Nationalists. At times, partisanship also moderates the effects of an Islamic Fundamentalist categorization. The study has implications for political tolerance, partisanship, and attitudes toward terrorism in contemporary politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social categorization is often framed as the antecedent to stereotyping, with perceivers rationally sorting the social world on the basis of perceptually salient categories before applying biased or motivated beliefs about those categories. Here, we instead suggest that the construction of social categories by individuals is itself subject to motivational influences, such that perceivers will attend to a given dimension of social categorization (e.g., race or gender) insofar as doing so fits within their motivations. Drawing from classic conceptualizations of social structure as the interplay of schemas and resources, we focus on how the motivations for shared schemas and for material benefits or resources may shape attention to social category dimensions. We outline the potential cognitive mechanisms through which these motivations may act on attention, before discussing the implications of this model for individual differences, conceptualizations of social categorization as rational information reduction, and prejudice reduction. Social categories like race and gender often give rise to stereotypes and prejudice, and a great deal of research has focused on how motivations influence these biased beliefs. Here, we focus on potential biases in how these categories are even formed in the first place, suggesting that motivations can influence the very categories people use to group others. We propose that motivations to share schemas with other people and to gain resources shape people's attention to dimensions like race, gender, and age in different contexts. Specifically, people will pay attention to dimensions to the degree that the conclusions produced from using those dimensions align with their motivations. Overall, we suggest that simply examining the downstream effects of social categorization like stereotyping and prejudice is not enough, and that research should look earlier in the process at how and when we form the categories on which those stereotypes are based. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clothing, hairstyle, makeup, and accessories influence first impressions. However, target dress is notably absent from current theories and models of person perception. We discuss three reasons for this minimal attention to dress in person perception: high theoretical complexity, incompatibility with traditional methodology, and underappreciation by the groups who have historically guided research in person perception. We propose a working model of person perception that incorporates target dress alongside target face, target body, context, and perceiver characteristics. Then, we identify four types of inferences for which perceivers rely on target dress: social categories, cognitive states, status, and aesthetics. For each of these, we review relevant work in social cognition, integrate this work with existing dress research, and propose future directions. Finally, we identify and offer solutions to the theoretical and methodological challenges accompanying the psychological study of dress. Why is it that people often agonize over what to wear for a job interview, a first date, or a party? The answer is simple: They understand that others' first impressions of them rely on their clothing, hairstyle, makeup, and accessories. Many people might be surprised, then, to learn that psychologists' theories about how people form first impressions of others have little to say about how people dress. This is true in part because the meaning of clothing is so complex and culturally dependent. We propose a working model of first impressions that identifies four types of information that people infer from dress: people's social identities, mental states, status, and aesthetic tastes. For each of these, we review existing research on clothing, integrate this research with related work from social psychology more broadly, and propose future directions for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Society: Chinese Journal of Sociology / Shehui is the property of Society: Chinese Journal of Sociology and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

IntroductionThe present research investigates whether ingroup-outgroup distinction salience moderates automatic intergroup bias (i.e., more positive evaluations of ingroup targets relative to outgroup targets) toward multiply categorizable social targets.MethodsIn two experiments, we manipulated the salience of participants’ social identity based on age vs. race, respectively. Afterwards, we measured automatic evaluations of social targets varying in age and race.ResultsYoung White participants exhibited higher automatic race bias when their racial identity (i.e., White in contrast to Black) was salient. Conversely, they exhibited higher automatic age bias when their age identity (i.e., young in contrast to old) was salient.DiscussionGoing beyond previous research, we show that it is sufficient to direct participants’ attention to their ingroup-identity in contrast to the respective outgroup to cause changes in automatic intergroup bias. This is important because it provides a strong test of the hypothesis that ingroup-outgroup distinction salience moderates automatic intergroup bias.

This article employs a mindful approach to social categorization, which often turns negative and leads to prejudice, discrimination, and hatred. The main focus is put on considering whether mindfulness can help resolve social categorization in our daily lives. Buddhist mindfulness is examined as a means against human biases that influence us to categorize people socially. Through mindfulness, our views and interactions with others can be more open and caring. The article employs a mindful methodology that focuses on openness and consideration of the research and its subjects and contributes to the current state of research by creating a greater awareness of the connection between mindfulness and social categorization in our everyday lives.

Stereotypes linking Black Americans with guns can have life-altering outcomes, making it important to identify factors that shape such weapon identification biases and how they do so. We report 6 experiments that provide a mechanistic account of how category salience affects weapon identification bias elicited by male faces varying in race (Black, White) and age (men, boys). Behavioral analyses of error rates and response latencies revealed that, when race was salient, faces of Black versus White males (regardless of age) facilitated the classification of objects as guns versus tools. When a category other than race was salient, racial bias in behavior was reduced, though not eliminated. In Experiments 1-4, racial bias was weaker when participants attended to a social category besides race (i.e., age). In Experiments 5 and 6, racial bias was weaker when participants attended to an applicable, yet nonsubstantive category (i.e., the color of a dot on the face). Across experiments, process analyses using diffusion models revealed that, when race was salient, seeing Black versus White male faces led to an initial bias to favor the "gun" response. When a category besides race (i.e., age, dot color) was salient, racial bias in the relative start point was reduced, though not eliminated. These results suggest that the magnitude of racial bias in weapon identification may differ depending on what social category is salient. The collective findings also highlight the utility of diffusion modeling for elucidating how category salience shapes processes underlying racial biases in behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Social network researchers have shown that, compared to their effect on majority employees, structural constraints can cause minority employees to end up in network positions that limit their access to resources (i.e., social capital) and that consequently limit their access to professional opportunities. These findings, however, do not explain why structurally equivalent minority and majority employees achieve differential returns of social capital on their leadership advancement. We propose that majority and minority employees differ in terms of network utilization, which is the extent to which individuals utilize their existing network ties. We theorize why and how network utilization processes—career and work utilization of network ties—can explain employees' (i.e., actors) influence on their leadership advancement. We also explicate the process through which actors' direct and indirect network connections (i.e., alters) contribute to such outcomes through both career-supporting utilization and work-supporting utilization with actors. We conclude by outlining the boundary conditions of network utilization theory, a theory that changes the current understanding of how existing social network ties can perpetuate the underrepresentation of minorities in leadership positions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes how the Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán uses social categorization and populist rhetoric in an anti-LGBTQ campaign. Drawing on social identity theory and the scholarship on populist rhetoric and anti-LGBTQ politics, the article examines 46 interviews, press statements, public speeches, and op-eds by Orbán. Using critical discourse analysis (CDA) and Wodak's discourse-historical approach, it shows how the prime minister frames LGBTQ communities as an out-group that poses a threat to Hungarian values and way of living. Similar to the issue of immigration and existing anti-LGBTQ frames in other countries, Orbán presents LGBTQ groups within his well-established anti-Western narrative. In addition, he connects LGBTQ communities to other out-groups that have been portrayed as a threat for a long time. The study sheds new light on the linguistic strategies of Orbán and shows how populist rhetoric and social categorization complement each other in a political campaign. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The past generation has seen a dramatic rise in multiracial populations and a consequent increase in exposure to individuals who challenge monolithic racial categories. We examine and compare two potential outcomes of the multiracial population growth that may impact people's racial categorization experience: (a) exposure to racially ambiguous faces that visually challenge the existing categories, and (b) a category that conceptually challenges existing categories (including "biracial" as an option in addition to the monolithic "Black" and "White" categories). Across four studies (N = 1,810), we found that multiple exposures to faces that are racially ambiguous directly lower essentialist views of race. Moreover, we found that when people consider a category that blurs the line between racial categories (i.e., "biracial"), they become less certain in their racial categorization, which is associated with less race essentialism, as well. Importantly, we found that these two effects happen independently from one another and represent two distinct cognitive processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two competing theories explain the other‐'race' effect (ORE) either by greater perceptual expertise to same‐'race' (SR) faces or by social categorization of other‐'race' (OR) faces at the expense of individuation. To assess expertise and categorization contributions to the ORE, a promising—yet overlooked—approach is comparing activations for different other‐'races'. We present a label‐based systematic review of neuroimaging studies reporting increased activity in response to OR faces (African, Caucasian, or Asian) when compared with the SR of participants. Hypothetically, while common activations would reflect general aspects of OR perception, 'race'‐preferential ones would represent effects of 'race'‐specific visual appearance. We find that several studies report activation of occipito‐temporal and midcingulate areas in response to faces across different other‐'races', presumably due to high demand on the visual system and category processing. Another area reported in response to all OR faces, the caudate nucleus, suggests the involvement of socio‐affective processes and behavioural regulation. Overall, our results support hybrid models—both expertise and social categorization contribute to the ORE, but they provide little evidence for reduced motivation to process OR faces. Additionally, we identify areas preferentially responding to specific OR faces, reflecting effects of visual appearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examined how listeners categorize and stereotype speakers belonging to intersecting social categories (nationality; sexual orientation) based on voice alone. In Study 1, British heterosexuals categorized the nationality and sexual orientation of British and Italian speakers who self-identified as gay or heterosexual. Participants correctly categorized British speakers as co-nationals and Italian speakers as foreigners. Categorization accuracy of gay speakers' sexual orientation was poor. Italian gay speakers were perceived as most likely to be gay and non-native speakers. Study 2 examined stereotyping of speakers who sounded either native or foreign, and sounded either gay or heterosexual. Foreign-accented (vs. native-accented) speakers were rated as less competent, and gay-sounding (vs. heterosexual-sounding) speakers as less gender typical. Foreign-accented gay speakers were perceived as the least competent and gender typical. • Categorization of speakers as nationals/foreigners was accurate. • Categorization of speakers' sexual orientation was poor. • Foreign-accented (vs. native-accented) speakers were rated as less competent. • Gay-sounding (vs. heterosexual-sounding) speakers were rated as less gender typical. • Foreign-accented gay speakers were perceived as least competent and gender typical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased category salience is associated with increased stereotyping. Prior research has not examined the processes that may account for this relationship. That is, it is unclear whether category salience leads to increased stereotyping by increasing stereotype activation (i.e., increased accessibility of stereotypic information), application (i.e., increasing the tendency to apply activated stereotypes), or both processes simultaneously. We examined this question across three studies by manipulating category salience in an implicit stereotyping measure and by applying a process model that provides independent estimates of stereotype activation and application. Our results replicated past findings that category salience increases stereotyping. Modeling results showed that category salience consistently increased the extent of stereotype application but increased stereotype activation in more limited contexts. Implications for models of social categorization and stereotyping are discussed.

The empirical basis of the paper is formed by the findings of the survey of the students ofone of the departments of Moscow State University conducted by the Institute for Complex Research in Education of the Lomonosov Moscow State University. Students’ perceptions of the teachers are analyzed with regard to the impact on them of the economic and symbolic factors of identity (within the frames of the graded model of the stages of perception). Possibility of the content interpretation of the students’ assessments of their teachers is suggested to theorganizers of the educational process as a part of the teaching quality monitoring.

Social categorization of faces occurs along multiple dimensions such as race and gender and influences interpersonal interactions widely. Does social categorization of faces along different dimensions take place in parallel or give priority to some faces along a specific dimension? Across seven studies, we proposed and empirically tested a social task demand hypothesis that social categorization of a particular group of faces occurs in priority along one dimension (race or gender) in response to specific social task demands. Study 1 showed behavioral evidence that other-race faces are more densely clustered into one category, whereas same-race faces are more distantly separated into two (male and female) categories. Studies 2–4 showed electrophysiological evidence for earlier spontaneous racial categorization of other-race faces but earlier spontaneous gender categorization of same-race faces during an individual face recognition task. Studies 5–7 manipulated social task demands and provided electrophysiological evidence that early processes underlying racial or gender categorization of other-race or same-race faces were inhibited or facilitated by task demands of evaluating gender roles or group membership of perceived faces. Our findings indicate that the priority of racial or gender categorization of other-race or same-race faces varies dynamically to meet social task demands of managing intergroup and cross-sex interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social categories hold a steadfast place within social psychological research and theory. Reflecting on the use of social categories in everyday life as well as social psychological research and theory, this article critically interrogates the privileging of hegemonic Western ways of categorizing, addressing and locating people over how they are read and categorized in other socio‐cultural contexts. This article draws on four excerpts of women narrating experiences of being called White, Oborɔnyi or mzungu (engl. foreigner, wanderer, White person) during their travels to the African continent. The article first excavates, phenomenologically, the precariousness of being addressed as White, Oborɔnyi or mzungu. Next, a reflexive account is presented to contemplate how racialization happens in and through the research process. By bringing together phenomenological interpretation and reflexivity, the article explores the limits of researcher and researched positionality in making sense of White as a precarious address, and argues for a view that the meaning of White is established in a four‐way conversation between interviewee, African Other, interviewer and our own culture‐specific inner eyes. The article thus advocates for scholars to give more attention to how our inner eyes limit how we name, describe and theorize our research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effects of source partisanship and credentials on persuasion. Democrats and Republicans (N = 206) read a policy statement advocating for a national mask mandate, ostensibly written by either a doctor or layperson, associated either with the Democratic or Republican party. Participants' perceptions of the source and receptivity to the message aligned with their political party's normative position on the issue: Democrats rated the source as more competent and trustworthy, engaged in less counterarguing, and supported the policy more than Republicans. Although the doctor was trusted more than the layperson and Republicans (but not Democrats) attributed more trust and competence to an ingroup than an outgroup source, source characteristics had no effect on message receptivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite increased awareness of a wide range of demographics, existing theory fails to adequately explain how the stereotypes associated with multiple demographic categories (e.g., Black, female, gay, Muslim) combine to influence evaluations of employees. We present MOSAIC—a model of stereotyping through associated and intersectional categories—to explain how stereotypes from various demographic categories influence the expectations for, and visibility of, employees. MOSAIC makes sense of outcomes previously seen as anomalies and theoretically reconciles patterns of advantage and disadvantage that individuals experience (e.g., why Black women face less backlash for assertiveness but are less likely to be promoted and earn considerably less than White women). Extending intersectionality research to management scholarship, we introduce the concept of an associated demographic category, which we define as a category that bears an implicit cognitive link to another demographic category. MOSAIC proposes that perceivers integrate the stereotypes from individuals' foundational, intersectional, and associated categories and that this integration generates amplified or diluted stereotypes. This integrated stereotype content then yields proscriptive, prescriptive, and visibility templates and expectations that explain how bias emerges. As such, MOSAIC advances microlevel explanations for how and why particular configurations of demographic categories yield predictable patterns of stereotypes, expectations, and evaluations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most theories of kind representation suggest that people positinternal, essence-like factors believed to underlie kindmembership and the observable properties of members.Across two studies (N = 234), we show that adults canconstrue properties of social kinds as products of both internaland structural (stable external) factors. Internalist andstructural construals are similar in that both support formalexplanations (i.e., “category member has property P due tocategory membership C”), generic claims (“Cs have P”), anda particular pattern of generalization to individuals when theindividuals’ category membership and structural position arepreserved. Our findings thus challenge these phenomena assignatures of essentialist thinking. However, once categorymembership and structural position are unconfounded,different patterns of generalization emerge across internalistand structural construals, as do different judgmentsconcerning category definitions and property mutability.These findings have important implications for reasoningabout social kinds.

Some definitions and adoptions of the word "transgender" may be rooted in transgender prejudice and result in different conclusions about who is considered transgender. Transnormative definitions, fixed to the gender binary and medical transitions, could lead to categorical exclusions, whereas umbrella definitions, centered on people's self-identification and often featuring a greater range of gender identities, could lead to broader inclusion. The present work explored whether the relationship between attitudes toward transgender people and transgender target categorization is associated with divergent definitions of the word transgender. We hypothesized that higher prejudice and gender essentialism would predict agreement with transnormative definitions that would then predict lower categorization of transgender targets. We also hypothesized that lower prejudice and gender essentialism would predict agreement with umbrella definitions that would then predict higher transgender categorization. Using a sample of MTurk Workers (N = 497), we tested these hypotheses with a parallel moderated-mediation analysis. Results support that gender essentialism moderated the relationship between prejudice and umbrella definitions, and umbrella definitions mediated the relationship between attitudes and categorization of transgender targets (index of moderated mediation = .46, BCa CI [.20, .76]). Transnormative definition agreement was not predicted by prejudice or gender essentialism, and did not mediate the relationship between these attitudes and categorization (index of moderated mediation = .00, BCa CI [-.06, .05]). These findings provide insight into the role of underlying attitudes on categorization, which has implications on transgender and gender-diverse people's identity affirmation, social belonging, and healthcare access. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]