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Chromospheric evaporation (CE) and coronal rain (CR) represent two crucial phenomena encompassing the circulation of mass and energy during solar flares. While CE marks the start of the hot inflow into the flaring loop, CR marks the end, indicating the outflow in the form of cool and dense condensations. With the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) and the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory, we examine and compare the evolution, dynamics, morphology, and energetics of the CR and CE during a C2.1 flare. The CE is directly observed in imaging and spectra in the Fe xxi line with IRIS and in the Fe xviii line of AIA, with upward average total speeds of 138 ± 35 km s−1 and a temperature of 9.03 ± 3.28 × 106 K. An explosive-to-gentle CE transition is observed, with an apparent reduction in turbulence. From quiescent to gradual flare phase, the amount and density of CR increase by a factor of ≈4.4 and 6, respectively. The rain's velocity increases by a factor of 1.4, in agreement with gas pressure drag. In contrast, the clump width variation is negligible. The location and morphology of CE match closely those of the rain showers, with similar CE substructure to the rain strands, reflecting fundamental scales of mass and energy transport. We obtain a CR outflow mass three times larger than the CE inflow mass, suggesting the presence of unresolved CE, perhaps at higher temperatures. The CR energy corresponds to half that of the CE. These results suggest an essential role of CR in the mass−energy cycle of a flare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition region is a very thin but most peculiar layer in the solar atmosphere located between the solar chromosphere and the corona. It is a key region for understanding coronal heating, solar eruption triggers, and the origin of solar winds. Here, almost all physical parameters (density, temperature, and magnetic fields) have the maximum gradient. Therefore, this region should be highly dynamic, including fast energy releasing and transporting, plasma heating, and particle accelerating. The physical processes can be categorized into two classes: thermal and non-thermal processes. Thermal processes can be observed at ultraviolet (UV) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelengths via multi-wavelength images. Non-thermal processes accelerate non-thermal electrons and produce radio emissions via the gyrosynchrotron mechanism resulting from the interaction between the non-thermal electrons and magnetic fields. The frequency range spans from several GHz to beyond 100 GHz, in great number of bursts with narrowband, millisecond lifetime, rapid frequency drifting rates, and being referred to as transition region small-scale microwave bursts (TR-SMBs). This work proposes a new type of Solar Ultra-wide Broadband Millimeter-wave Spectrometer (SUBMS) that can be used to observe TR-SMBs. From SUBMS observations, we can derive rich dynamic information about the transition region, such as information about non-thermal energy release and propagation, the flows of plasma and energetic particles, the magnetic fields and their variations, the generation and transportation of various waves, and the formation and evolution of the source regions of solar eruptions. Such an instrument can actually detect the non-thermal signals in the transition region during no flare as well as the eruptive high-energy processes during solar flares. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loops are fundamental structures in the magnetized atmosphere of the Sun. Their physical properties are crucial for understanding the nature of the solar atmosphere. Transition region loops are relatively dynamic and their physical properties have not yet been fully understood. With spectral data of the line pair of O iv 1399.8 Å and 1401.2 Å ( ${T}_{\max }=1.4\times {10}^{5}$ K) of 23 transition region loops obtained by IRIS, we carry out the first systematic analyses to their loop lengths ( L ), electron densities ( n _e ), and effective temperatures. We found electron densities, loop lengths, and effective temperatures of these loops are in the ranges of 8.9 × 10 ^9 –3.5 × 10 ^11 cm ^−3 , 8–30 Mm, and 1.9 × 10 ^5 –1.3 × 10 ^6 K, respectively. At a significant level of 90%, regression analyses show that the relationship between electron densities and loop lengths is n _e [cm ^−3 ] ∝ ( L [Mm]) ^−0.78±0.42 , while the dependences of electron densities on effective temperatures and that on the line intensities are not obvious. These observations demonstrate that transition region loops are significantly different than their coronal counterparts. Further studies on the theoretical aspect based on the physical parameters obtained here are of significance for understanding the nature of transition region loops.

The O i 1355 Å spectral line is one of the only optically thin lines that are both routinely observed and thought to be formed in the chromosphere. We present an analysis of a variety of observations of this line with the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), and compare it with other IRIS diagnostics as well as diagnostics of the photospheric magnetic field. We utilize special deep exposure modes on IRIS and provide an overview of the statistical properties of this spectral line for several different regions on the Sun. We analyze the spatiotemporal variations of the line intensity and find that it is often significantly enhanced when and where magnetic flux of opposite polarities cancel. Significant emission occurs in association with chromospheric spicules. Because of the optically thin nature of the O i line, the nonthermal broadening can provide insight into unresolved small-scale motions. We find that the nonthermal broadening is modest, with typical values of 5–10 km s−1, and shows some center-to-limb variation, with a modest increase toward the limb. The dependence with the height of the intensity and line broadening off-limb is compatible with the line broadening being dominated by the superposition of Alfvén waves on different structures. The nonthermal broadening shows a modest but significant enhancement above locations that are in between photospheric magnetic flux concentrations in plage, i.e., where the magnetic field is likely to be more inclined with respect to the line of sight. Our measurements provide strict constraints on future theoretical models of the chromosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-resolution spectral observations of the lower solar atmosphere (chromosphere and transition region) during coronal heating events, in combination with predictions from models of impulsively heated loops, provide powerful diagnostics of the properties of the heating in active region cores. Here, we analyze the first coordinated observations of such events with the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) and the CHROMospheric Imaging Spectrometer (CHROMIS), at the Swedish 1 m Solar Telescope (SST), which provided extremely high spatial resolution and revealed chromospheric brightenings with spatial dimensions down to ∼150 km. We use machine-learning methods (k -means clustering) and find significant coherence in the spatial and temporal properties of the chromospheric spectra, suggesting, in turn, coherence in the spatial and temporal distribution of the coronal heating. The comparison of IRIS and CHROMIS spectra with simulations suggests that both nonthermal electrons with low energy (low-energy cutoff ∼5 keV) and direct heating in the corona transported by thermal conduction contribute to the heating of the low atmosphere. This is consistent with growing evidence that nonthermal electrons are not uncommon in small heating events (nanoflare to microflares), and that their properties can be constrained by chromospheric and transition region spectral observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition region is a very thin but most peculiar layer in the solar atmosphere located between the solar chromosphere and the corona. It is a key region for understanding coronal heating, solar eruption triggers, and the origin of solar winds. Here, almost all physical parameters (density, temperature, and magnetic fields) have the maximum gradient. Therefore, this region should be highly dynamic, including fast energy releasing and transporting, plasma heating, and particle accelerating. The physical processes can be categorized into two classes: thermal and non-thermal processes. Thermal processes can be observed at ultraviolet (UV) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelengths via multi-wavelength images. Non-thermal processes accelerate non-thermal electrons and produce radio emissions via the gyrosynchrotron mechanism resulting from the interaction between the non-thermal electrons and magnetic fields. The frequency range spans from several GHz to beyond 100 GHz, in great number of bursts with narrowband, millisecond lifetime, rapid frequency drifting rates, and being referred to as transition region small-scale microwave bursts (TR-SMBs). This work proposes a new type of Solar Ultra-wide Broadband Millimeter-wave Spectrometer (SUBMS) that can be used to observe TR-SMBs. From SUBMS observations, we can derive rich dynamic information about the transition region, such as information about non-thermal energy release and propagation, the flows of plasma and energetic particles, the magnetic fields and their variations, the generation and transportation of various waves, and the formation and evolution of the source regions of solar eruptions. Such an instrument can actually detect the non-thermal signals in the transition region during no flare as well as the eruptive high-energy processes during solar flares.

Small-scale brightenings (SBs) are commonly observed in the transition region (TR) that separates the solar chromosphere from the corona. These brightenings, omnipresent in active region patches known as “moss” regions, could potentially contribute to the heating of active region plasma. In this study, we investigate the properties of SB events in a moss region and their associated chromospheric dynamics, which could provide insights into the underlying generation mechanisms of the SBs. We analyzed the data sets obtained by coordinated observations using the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph and the Goode Solar Telescope at Big Bear Solar Observatory. We studied 131 SB events in our region of interest and found that 100 showed spatial and temporal matches with the dynamics observed in the chromospheric H α images. Among these SBs, 98 of them were associated with spicules that are observed in H α images. Furthermore, detailed analysis revealed that one intense SB event corresponded to an Ellerman bomb (EB), while another SB event consisted of several recurring brightenings caused by a stream of falling plasma. We observed that H α far wings often showed flashes of strong brightening caused by the falling plasma, creating an H α spectral profile similar to an EB. However, 31 of the 131 investigated SB events showed no noticeable spatial and temporal matches with any apparent features in H α images. Our analysis indicated that the predominant TR SB events in moss regions are associated with chromospheric phenomena primarily caused by spicules. Most of these spicules display properties akin to dynamic fibrils.

The origin of nonthermal broadening in solar spectra is one of the long-standing questions in solar physics. Various processes have been invoked—including unresolved flows, waves, and turbulent processes—but definitive answers are lacking. To investigate the physical processes responsible for nonthermal broadening, we examine its relation with the angle between the magnetic field and the line of sight in three different closed-field regions above plage regions at different locations on the solar disk. We obtained the nonthermal width of transition-region Si iv 1403 Å spectra observed in active regions by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, after subtraction of the thermal and instrumental line broadening. To investigate the dependence of the measured broadening on the viewing angle between the line of sight and magnetic field direction, we determined the magnetic field direction at transition-region heights using nonlinear force-free extrapolations based on the observed photospheric vector magnetic field taken by the Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory. We found that the nonthermal broadening shows a correlation with downward motion (redshifts) and alignment between the magnetic field and the observer’s line-of-sight direction. Based on the observed correlations, we suggest that velocity gradients within plasma flowing down along the magnetic field may lead to a significant portion of the observed nonthermal broadening of transition-region spectral lines in closed fields above plage regions.

The study examines the heating profile of hot solar transition region loops, particularly focusing on transient brightenings observed in IRIS 1400 Å slit-jaw images. The findings challenge the adequacy of simplistic, singular heating mechanisms, revealing that the heating is temporally impulsive and requires a spatially complex profile with multiple heating scales. A forward-modeling code is utilized to generate synthetic Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) emission spectra of these loops based on HYDRAD model output, confirming that emitting ions are out of equilibrium. The modeling further indicates that density-dependent dielectronic recombination rates must be included to reproduce the observed line ratios. Collectively, this evidence substantiates that the loops are subject to impulsive heating and that the components of the transiently brightened plasma are driven far from thermal equilibrium. Heating events such as these are ubiquitous in the transition region, and the analysis described above provides a robust observational diagnostic tool for characterizing the plasma.

Spicules are the thin hair/grass-like structures that are prominently observed at the chromospheric solar limb. It is believed that fibrils and rapid blueshifted and redshifted excursions (RBEs and RREs; collectively referred to as REs) correspond to on-disk counterparts of type I spicules and type II spicules, respectively. Our investigation focuses on observing the response of these REs alongside similar spectral features in the chromosphere, transition region (TR), and corona, utilizing space–time plots derived from coordinated observations from the Swedish 1 m Solar Telescope/H α , Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), and Solar Dynamics Observatory. Our analysis reveals upflowing REs, promptly reaching temperatures characteristic of the TR and corona, indicating a multithermal nature. Similarly, downflowing features exhibiting similar spectral signatures over the disk display plasma motion from the corona to chromospheric temperatures, demonstrating a multithermal nature. In addition to distinct upflows and downflows, we observe sequential upflow and downflow along the same path, depicting a distinctive parabolic trajectory in space–time plots of observations sampling TR and various coronal passbands. Similar to isolated upflows and downflows, these REs also exhibit a multithermal nature throughout their trajectory. Furthermore, our results reveal a more intricate motion of the REs in which both upflow and downflow coexist at the same spatial location. On a different note, our analysis, utilizing coordinated IRIS spectral observations, shows spatiotemporal redshifts/downflows in both the TR and chromosphere, suggesting that at least subsets of the strong redshifts/downflows observed in TR temperature spectra result from the return from the upper atmosphere flow of plasma in the form of bundles of spicules or features exhibiting similar spectra.

Chromospheric evaporation (CE) and coronal rain (CR) represent two crucial phenomena encompassing the circulation of mass and energy during solar flares. While CE marks the start of the hot inflow into the flaring loop, CR marks the end, indicating the outflow in the form of cool and dense condensations. With the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) and the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on the Solar Dynamics Observatory, we examine and compare the evolution, dynamics, morphology, and energetics of the CR and CE during a C2.1 flare. The CE is directly observed in imaging and spectra in the Fe xxi line with IRIS and in the Fe xviii line of AIA, with upward average total speeds of 138 ± 35 km s ^−1 and a temperature of 9.03 ± 3.28 × 10 ^6 K. An explosive-to-gentle CE transition is observed, with an apparent reduction in turbulence. From quiescent to gradual flare phase, the amount and density of CR increase by a factor of ≈4.4 and 6, respectively. The rain’s velocity increases by a factor of 1.4, in agreement with gas pressure drag. In contrast, the clump width variation is negligible. The location and morphology of CE match closely those of the rain showers, with similar CE substructure to the rain strands, reflecting fundamental scales of mass and energy transport. We obtain a CR outflow mass three times larger than the CE inflow mass, suggesting the presence of unresolved CE, perhaps at higher temperatures. The CR energy corresponds to half that of the CE. These results suggest an essential role of CR in the mass−energy cycle of a flare.

An expansion of the cross-sectional area directly impacts the mass flow along a coronal loop and significantly alters the radiative and hydrodynamic evolution of that loop as a result. Previous studies have found that an area expansion from the chromosphere to the corona significantly lengthens the cooling time of the corona and appears to suppress draining from the corona. In this work, we examine the fluid dynamics to understand how the mass flow rate, the energy balance, and the cooling and draining timescales are affected by a nonuniform area. We find that in loops with moderate or large expansion (cross-sectional area expansion factors of 2, 3, 10, 30, 100 from the photosphere to the apex), impulsive heating, for either direct thermal heating or electron beam heating, induces a steady flow into the corona, so that the coronal density continues to rise during the cooling phase, whereas a uniform loop drains during the cooling phase. The induced upflow carries energy into the corona, balancing the losses from thermal conduction, and continues until thermal conduction weakens enough so that it can no longer support the radiative losses of the transition region. As a result, the plasma cools primarily radiatively until the onset of catastrophic collapse. The speed and duration of the induced upflow both increase in proportion to the rate of area expansion. We argue that observations of blueshifted spectral lines, therefore, could place a constraint on a loop’s area expansion.

Previously unexplored diagnostics of O iv in the extreme-ultraviolet region 260–280 Å are used to derive a temperature and density for a solar flare kernel observed on 2012 March 9 with the Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer on the Hinode satellite. Seven lines from the 2 s 2 p ^2 –2 s 2 p 3 s transition array between 271.99 and 272.31 Å are both temperature- and density-sensitive relative to the line at 279.93 Å. The temperature, T , is constrained with the λ 268.02/ λ 279.93 ratio, giving a value of $\mathrm{log}(T/{\rm{K}})=5.10\pm 0.03$ . The ratio λ 272.13/ λ 279.93 then yields an electron number density, N _e , of $\mathrm{log}({N}_{{\rm{e}}}/{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3})=12.52$ with a lower limit of 11.90 and an upper limit of 14.40. The O iv emitting volume is estimated to be 0.″4 (300 km) across. Additional O iv lines at 196, 207, and 260 Å are consistent with the derived temperature and density but have larger uncertainties from the radiometric calibration and blending. Density diagnostics of O v and Mg vii from the same spectrum are consistent with a constant pressure of 10 ^17.0 K cm ^−3 through the transition region. The temperature derived from O iv supports recent results that O iv is formed around 0.10 dex lower at high densities compared to standard zero-density ionization balance calculations.

Upflows and downflows at active region (AR) boundaries have been frequently observed with spectroscopic observations at extreme ultraviolet passbands. In this paper, we report the coexistence of upflows and downflows at the AR boundaries with imaging observations from the Solar Upper Transition Region Imager (SUTRI) and the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA). With their observations from 2022 September 21 to 2022 September 30, we find 17 persistent opposite flows occurring along the AR coronal loops. The upflows are prominent in the AIA 193 Å images with a velocity of 50–200 km s ^−1 , while the downflows are best seen in the SUTRI 465 Å and AIA 131 Å images with a slower velocity of tens of kilometers per second (characteristic temperatures (log T (K)) for 193, 465, and 131 Å are 6.2, 5.7, and 5.6, respectively). We also analyze the center-to-limb variation of the velocities for both upflows and downflows. The simultaneous observations of downflows and upflows can be explained by the chromosphere–corona mass-cycling process, in which the localized chromospheric plasma is impulsively heated to coronal temperature forming a upflow and then these upflows experience radiative cooling producing a downflow with the previously heated plasma returning to the lower atmosphere. In particular, the persistent downflows seen by SUTRI provide strong evidence of the cooling process in the mass cycle. For upflows associated with open loops, part of the plasma is able to escape outward and into the heliosphere as solar wind.

Small-scale, newly emerging internetwork (IN) magnetic fields are considered a viable source of energy and mass for the solar chromosphere and possibly the corona. Multiple studies show that single events of flux emergence can indeed locally heat the low solar atmosphere through interactions of the upward propagating magnetic loops and the preexisting ambient field lines. However, the global impact of the newly emerging IN fields on the solar atmosphere is still unknown. In this paper, we study the spatiotemporal evolution of IN bipolar flux features and analyze their impact on the energetics and dynamics of the quiet-Sun atmosphere. We use high-resolution, multiwavelength, coordinated observations obtained with the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, Hinode, and the Solar Dynamics Observatory to identify emerging IN magnetic fields and follow their evolution. Our observational results suggest that only the largest IN bipoles are capable of heating locally the low solar atmosphere, while the global contribution of these bipoles appears to be marginal. However, the total number of bipoles detected and their impact estimated in this work is limited by the sensitivity level, spatial resolution, and duration of our observations. To detect smaller and weaker IN fields that would maintain the basal flux, and examine their contribution to the chromospheric heating, we will need higher resolution, higher sensitivity, and longer time series obtained with current and next-generation ground- and space-based telescopes.

A joint campaign of several spaceborne and ground-based observatories, such as the GREGOR solar telescope, the Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (EIS), and the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (Hinode Observing Plan 381, 2019 October 11–22) was conducted to investigate the plasma β in quiet Sun regions. In this work, we focus on 2019 October 13, 17, and 19 to obtain the plasma β at different heights through the solar atmosphere based on multiheight observational data. We obtained temperature, density, and magnetic field estimates from the GREGOR High-resolution Fast Imager, Infrared Spectrograph, Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, and EIS and complementary data from the Solar Dynamics Observatory Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA). Using observational data and models (e.g., FALC and PFSS), we determined the plasma β in the photosphere, chromosphere, transition region, and corona. The obtained plasma β values lie inside the expected ranges through the solar atmosphere. However, at EIS and AIA coronal heights (from 1.03 to 1.20 R _⊙ ), plasma β values appear in the limit defined by Gary; such behavior was previously reported by Rodríguez Gómez et al. Additionally, we obtained the plasma β in the solar photosphere at different optical depths from $\mathrm{log}\tau =-1.0$ to –2.0. These values decrease with optical depth. This work provides a complete picture of plasma β in quiet Sun regions through the solar atmosphere, which is a prerequisite of a better understanding of the plasma dynamics at the base of the solar corona.

The element abundances in the solar corona and solar wind are often different from those of the solar photosphere, typically with a relative enrichment of elements with low first ionization potential (FIP effect). Here, we study the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of the coronal chemical composition in an active region (AR) over about 10 days, using Hinode/EIS spectra, and we also analyze coordinated IRIS observations of the chromospheric and transition region emission to investigate any evidence of the footprints of the FIP effect in the lower atmosphere. To derive the coronal abundances, we use a spectral inversion method recently developed for the MUSE investigation. We find that, in the studied active region (AR 12738), the coronal FIP bias, as diagnosed by the Si/S abundance ratio, presents significant spatial variations, with its highest values (∼2.5–3.5) in the outflow regions at the boundary of the AR, but typically modest temporal variability. Some moss regions and some regions around the AR sunspot show enhanced FIP bias (∼2–2.5) with respect to the AR core, which has only a small FIP bias of ∼1.5. The FIP bias appears most variable in these moss regions. The IRIS observations reveal that the chromospheric turbulence, as derived from IRIS2 inversions of the Mg ii spectra, is enhanced in the outflow regions characterized by the high FIP bias, providing significant new constraints to both models aimed at explaining the formation of AR outflows and models of chemical fractionation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The temporal variations of solar rotation in the photosphere, chromosphere, and corona have been widely investigated, whereas the rotation of the solar transition region is rarely studied. Here, we perform a primary study about the long-term variation of the rotation in the transition region using Ly α irradiance from 1947 February 14 to 2023 February 20. Correlation techniques are used, and the main results are as follows. (1) The sidereal rotation period of the solar transition region varies between 22.24 and 31.49 days, and the mean sidereal rotation period is 25.50 days for the studied time interval 1947–2022. (2) The rotation period of the transition region exhibits a clear downward trend during 1947–2022, which might be caused by the reduced heliospheric pressure and the weaker solar global magnetic fields. (3) Significant periodic signal of the quasi-Schwabe cycle is found in the rotation periods of the transition region. (4) The cross-correlation between the rotation periods of the solar transition region and sunspot activity corroborates a strong correlation with the Schwabe cycle. Possible mechanisms responsible for these results are discussed.

We propose a partially ionized collisional two-fluid model of the formation of the transition region between the cool dense chromosphere and hot tenuous corona for the quiet Sun. The chromosphere is treated as an isothermal gravity-bound two-fluid stratified atmosphere without appreciable vertical flow, on average. The different scale heights of the two fluids result in vertical evolution of the ionization state, and the transition region can be defined according to the ionization fraction. The transition region starts at the altitude where the ionization fraction reaches 0.5, the demarcation between the weakly and strongly ionized gas. The upper border of the region is defined as the temperature at which the particles possess enough energy for ionization, i.e., the first ionization potential. Within the transition region is a diffusion process in which the cold chromospheric particles gain energy and ionize through random collisions with hot coronal particles diffusing upward into the corona, whereas, when colliding with cold chromospheric particles, hot coronal particles lose energy, recombine, and fall into the chromosphere. The type II spicules can be generated when and where the local heating rate is so high that the conditions for a stratified chromosphere are not satisfied; upward flow is formed, penetrating the corona where the chromospheric gas in the spicule is ionized and dispersed. The enhanced radiation via those chromospheric neutral particles cools the coronal gas, and more recombination occurs, producing enhanced downward diffusion. The model reproduces key structural features of the transition region from first principles and a minimum of arbitrary parameters.

We report on observations of highly-varying Si IV 1402.77 Å line profiles observed with the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) during the M-class flare from 18 January 2022 at an unprecedented 0.8 s cadence. Moment analysis of this line observed in flare ribbon kernels showed that the intensity, Doppler velocity, and non-thermal broadening exhibited variations with periods below 10 s. These variations were found to be correlated with properties of the Gaussian fit to a well-resolved secondary component of the line redshifted by up to 70 km s−1, while the primary component was consistently observed near the rest wavelength of the line. A particularly high correlation was found between the non-thermal broadening of the line resulting from the moment analysis and the redshift of the secondary component. This means that the oscillatory enhancements in the line broadening were due to plasma flows (away from the observer) with varying properties. A simple de-projection of the Doppler velocities of the secondary component based on a three-dimensional reconstruction of flare loops rooted in the kernel suggests that the observed flows were caused by downflows and compatible with strong condensation flows recently predicted by numerical simulations. Furthermore, peaks of the intensity and the trends of Doppler velocity of the Gaussian fit to the secondary component (averaged in the ribbon) were found to correspond to one of the quasi-periodic pulsations (QPPs) detected during the event in the soft X-ray flux (as measured by the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES) and the microwave radio flux (as measured by the Expanded Owens Valley Solar Array, EOVSA). This result supports a scenario in which the QPPs were driven by repeated magnetic reconnection.

We have investigated 49 solar macrospicules observed in 2010 at the rising phase of the solar cycle at high (circumpolar) and low (near the solar equator) latitudes. We have found that, within the measurement accuracy, the macrospicule birth rate does not depend on the latitude and is deg h . Concurrently, we have established that the mean heights of macrospicules near the equator and the poles differ noticeably. After the elimination of projection effects, we have obtained thousand km for macrospicules at low latitudes and thousand km for high-latitude macrospicules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New reference wavelengths for atomic transitions of Mg vii and Si vii in the 272–281 Å wavelength range are derived using measurements from the Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (EIS) on board the Hinode spacecraft. Mg vii and Si vii are important ions for measuring plasma properties in the solar transition region at around 0.6 MK. The six Si vii wavelengths are 13–21 mÅ and 7–11 mÅ longer than the values in the NIST Atomic Spectra Database (ASD) and the compilations of B. Edlén, respectively. The four Mg vii wavelengths are shorter than the values in the ASD by 8–12 mÅ but show reasonable agreement with the Edlén values. The new wavelengths will lead to more accurate Doppler shift measurements from the EIS instrument and will be valuable for spectral disambiguation modeling for the upcoming Multi-Slit Solar Explorer mission.

The O i 1355 Å spectral line is one of the only optically thin lines that are both routinely observed and thought to be formed in the chromosphere. We present an analysis of a variety of observations of this line with the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), and compare it with other IRIS diagnostics as well as diagnostics of the photospheric magnetic field. We utilize special deep exposure modes on IRIS and provide an overview of the statistical properties of this spectral line for several different regions on the Sun. We analyze the spatiotemporal variations of the line intensity and find that it is often significantly enhanced when and where magnetic flux of opposite polarities cancel. Significant emission occurs in association with chromospheric spicules. Because of the optically thin nature of the O i line, the nonthermal broadening can provide insight into unresolved small-scale motions. We find that the nonthermal broadening is modest, with typical values of 5–10 km s ^−1 , and shows some center-to-limb variation, with a modest increase toward the limb. The dependence with the height of the intensity and line broadening off-limb is compatible with the line broadening being dominated by the superposition of Alfvén waves on different structures. The nonthermal broadening shows a modest but significant enhancement above locations that are in between photospheric magnetic flux concentrations in plage, i.e., where the magnetic field is likely to be more inclined with respect to the line of sight. Our measurements provide strict constraints on future theoretical models of the chromosphere.

Here, we present the study of a compact emission source during an X1.3 flare on 2022 March 30. Within a ∼41 s period (17:34:48 UT to 17:35:29 UT), Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph observations show spectral lines of Mg ii , C ii , and Si iv with extremely broadened, asymmetric red wings. This source of interest (SOI) is compact, ∼1.″6, and is located in the wake of a passing ribbon. Two methods were applied to measure the Doppler velocities associated with these red wings: spectral moments and multi-Gaussian fits. The spectral-moments method considers the averaged shift of the lines, which are 85, 125, and 115 km s ^−1 for the Mg ii , C ii , and Si iv lines respectively. The red-most Gaussian fit suggests a Doppler velocity up to ∼160 km s ^−1 in all of the three lines. Downward mass motions with such high speeds are very atypical, with most chromospheric downflows in flares on the order 10–100 km s ^−1 . Furthermore, extreme-UV (EUV) emission is strong within flaring loops connecting two flare ribbons located mainly to the east of the central flare region. The EUV loops that connect the SOI and its counterpart source in the opposite field are much less brightened, indicating that the density and/or temperature is comparatively low. These observations suggest a very fast downflowing plasma in the transition region and upper chromosphere, which decelerates rapidly since there is no equivalently strong shift of the O I chromospheric lines. This unusual observation presents a challenge that models of the solar atmosphere’s response to flares must be able to explain.

We report on the spectral features of the Si iv λ 1402.77, C ii λ 1334.53, and Mg ii h or k lines, formed in the layers from the transition region to the chromosphere, in three two-ribbon flares (with X, M, and C class) observed with IRIS. All three lines show significant redshifts within the main flare ribbons, which mainly originate from the chromospheric condensation during the flares. The average redshift velocities of the Si iv line within the main ribbons are 56.6, 25.6, and 10.5 km s ^−1 for the X-, M-, and C-class flares, respectively, which show a decreasing tendency with the flare class. The C ii and Mg ii lines show a similar tendency but with smaller velocities compared to the Si iv line. Additionally, the Mg ii h or k line shows a blue-wing enhancement in the three flares, in particular at the flare ribbon fronts, which is supposed to be caused by an upflow in the upper chromosphere due to the heating of the atmosphere. Moreover, the Mg ii h or k line exhibits a central reversal at the flare ribbons but turns to pure emission shortly after 1–4 minutes. Correspondingly, the C ii line also shows a central reversal but in a smaller region. However, for the Si iv line, the central reversal is only found in the X-class flare. As usual, the central reversal of these lines can be caused by the opacity effect. This implies that, in addition to the optically thick lines (C ii and Mg ii lines), the Si iv line can become optically thick in a strong flare, which is likely related to the nonthermal electron beam heating.

The solar corona produces coronal rain, hundreds of times colder and denser material than the surroundings. Coronal rain is known to be deeply linked to coronal heating, but its origin, dynamics, and morphology are still not well understood. The leading theory for its origin is thermal instability (TI) occurring in coronal loops in a state of thermal nonequilibrium (TNE), the TNE-TI scenario. Under steady heating conditions, TNE-TI repeats in cycles, leading to long-period EUV intensity pulsations and periodic coronal rain. In this study, we investigate coronal rain on the large spatial scales of an active region (AR) and over the long temporal scales of EUV intensity pulsations to elucidate its distribution at such scales. We conduct a statistical study of coronal rain observed over an AR off limb with Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph and Solar Dynamics Observatory imaging data, spanning chromospheric to transition region (TR) temperatures. The rain is widespread across the AR, irrespective of the loop inclination, and with minimal variation over the 5.45 hr duration of the observation. Most rain has a downward (87.5%) trajectory; however, upward motions (12.5%) are also ubiquitous. The rain dynamics are similar over the observed temperature range, suggesting that the TR emission and chromospheric emission are colocated on average. The average clump widths and lengths are similar in the SJI channels and wider in the AIA 304 Å channel. We find ubiquitous long-period EUV intensity pulsations in the AR. Short-term periodicity is found (16 minutes) linked to the rain appearance, which constitutes a challenge to explain under the TNE-TI scenario.

To date, the rotational characteristics of the solar transition region remain unclear. In this work, by applying the flux modulation method to the images derived from the Solar Dynamics Observatory/Atmospheric Imaging Assembly between 2011 and 2022 at 304 Å wavelength, we have studied the rotation of the solar transition region, and the results obtained are as follows. The solar transition region rotates differentially, while, from the perspective of the entire time interval, the rotation coefficients A and B are 14.39 (±0.08) and −1.61 (±0.15), respectively, and we find no prominent asymmetry in the average rotation rate of the northern and southern hemispheres. The solar transition region rotates fastest during the solar cycle maximum, and the average rotation rate follows the overall trend of solar activity. Both the equatorial rotation rate (represented by coefficient A ) and the latitudinal gradient (represented by coefficient B ) of the solar transition region are smaller than that of the solar chromosphere and the corona, indicating the solar transition region rotates more slowly and more rigidly than the other two layers, and we speculate that the solar chromosphere and corona seem to restrain the rotation of the solar transition region at the same time.

Spicule activity in the chromosphere is modeled via the perturbation resulting from the propagation of an Alfvén wave pulse in a magnetic flux tube. Building on previous work, the model is augmented by the inclusion of a finite transitional layer in which the atmospheric density decreases exponentially. This additional complexity of the density stratification provides a more physical representation of the solar atmosphere and improves on the existing model. The wave pulse is introduced at the lower boundary of the flux tube and interacts with the transitional layer, also being partially reflected. The total mass flux induced by the pulse, and the proportion of this pulse that is transmitted through the layer, is calculated and examined in the context of spicules and the solar wind using an example solution. We find that the inclusion of the transitional layer results in more plasma flux being transferred into the upper solar atmosphere when compared with the case of a discontinuity. We examine how varying the parameters of this transitional layer affects the ratio of the flux above and below the layer.

The Mg ii h and k lines are among the strongest in the near-ultraviolet solar spectrum and their line core originates in the upper chromosphere, just below the transition region. Consequently, they have become one of the main targets for investigating the magnetism of the upper solar atmosphere. The recent Chromospheric Layer Spectropolarimeter (CLASP2) mission obtained unprecedented spectropolarimetric data on these lines in an active region plage, which have already been used to infer the longitudinal component of the magnetic field by applying the weak-field approximation. In this paper, we aim at improving our understanding of the diagnostic capabilities of these lines by studying the emergent Stokes profiles resulting from radiative transfer calculations in a radiative magnetohydrodynamic time-dependent model representative of a solar plage. To this end, we create a synthetic observation with temporal and spatial resolutions similar to those of CLASP2. We find strong asymmetries in the synthetic profiles of circular polarization, which considerably complicate the application of the weak-field approximation. We demonstrate that the selective application of the weak-field approximation to fit different spectral regions in the profile allows us to retrieve information about the longitudinal component of the magnetic field in different regions of the model atmosphere, even when the circular polarization profiles are not antisymmetric and are formed in the presence of strong velocity and magnetic field gradients.

The transition region between the Sun’s corona and chromosphere is important to the mass and energy transfer from the lower atmosphere to the corona; consequently, this region has been studied intensely with ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) observations. A major result of these studies is that the amount of plasma at low temperatures,

We present the energy dependence of the intensity ratio between the 3 s 3 p ^3 P _2 —3 s 3 d ^3 D _3 transition at 233.9 Å and the 3 s 3 p ^1 P _1 —3 s 3 d ^1 D _2 transition at 243.8 Å in Fe xv studied with an electron beam ion trap over an energy range that spans resonance excitation regions. Clear resonance structures are observed in the electron energy range of 400–600 eV. The energy dependence obtained in the experiment is compared with a collisional-radiative model calculation, including resonance excitations, and overall agreement is found. It is shown that the ratio strongly reflects the population of the 3 s 3 p ^3 P _2 metastable state, which is the lower state of the 233.9 Å transition.

We studied a blowout jet that occurred at the west limb of the Sun on 2014 August 29 using high-resolution imaging/spectroscopic observations provided by the Solar Dynamics Observatory/Atmospheric Imaging Assembly and the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph. An inverse γ -shaped flux rope appeared before the jet–morphological indication of the onset of kink instability. The twisted field lines of the kink-unstable flux rope reconnected at its bright knot and launched the blowout jet at ≈06:30:43 UT with an average speed of 234 km s ^−1 . Just after the launch, the northern leg of the flux rope erupted completely. The time–distance diagrams show multiple spikes or bright dots, which is the result of periodic fluctuations, i.e., quasi-periodic fluctuations (QPPs). The wavelet analysis confirms that QPPs have a dominant period of ≈3 minutes. IRIS spectra (Si iv , C ii , and Mg ii ) may also indicate the occurrence of magnetic reconnection through the existence of broad and complex profiles and bidirectional flows in the jet. Further, we found that line broadening is periodic with a period of ≈3 minutes, and plasma upflow always occurs when the line width is high, i.e., multiple reconnection may produce periodic line broadening. The emission measure (EM) curves also show the same period of ≈3 minutes in different temperature bins. The images and EM show that this jet spire is mainly cool (chromospheric/transition region) rather than hot (coronal) material. Further, line broadening, intensity, and EM curves have a period of ≈3 minutes, which strongly supports the fact that multiple magnetic reconnection triggers QPPs in the blowout jet.

The element abundances in the solar corona and solar wind are often different from those of the solar photosphere, typically with a relative enrichment of elements with low first ionization potential (FIP effect). Here, we study the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of the coronal chemical composition in an active region (AR) over about 10 days, using Hinode/EIS spectra, and we also analyze coordinated IRIS observations of the chromospheric and transition region emission to investigate any evidence of the footprints of the FIP effect in the lower atmosphere. To derive the coronal abundances, we use a spectral inversion method recently developed for the MUSE investigation. We find that, in the studied active region (AR 12738), the coronal FIP bias, as diagnosed by the Si/S abundance ratio, presents significant spatial variations, with its highest values (∼2.5–3.5) in the outflow regions at the boundary of the AR, but typically modest temporal variability. Some moss regions and some regions around the AR sunspot show enhanced FIP bias (∼2–2.5) with respect to the AR core, which has only a small FIP bias of ∼1.5. The FIP bias appears most variable in these moss regions. The IRIS observations reveal that the chromospheric turbulence, as derived from IRIS ^2 inversions of the Mg ii spectra, is enhanced in the outflow regions characterized by the high FIP bias, providing significant new constraints to both models aimed at explaining the formation of AR outflows and models of chemical fractionation.

Nanoflares are regarded as one of the major mechanisms of magnetic energy release and coronal heating in the solar outer atmosphere. We conduct a statistical study on the response of the chromosphere and transition region to nanoflares, as observed by the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS), by using an algorithm for the automatic detection of these events. The initial atmospheric response to these small heating events is observed, with IRIS, as transient brightening at the foot points of coronal loops heated to high temperatures (>4 MK). For four active regions, observed over 143 hr, we detected 1082 footpoint brightenings under the IRIS slit, and for those we extracted physical parameters from the IRIS Mg ii and Si iv spectra that are formed in the chromosphere and transition region, respectively. We investigate the distributions of the spectral parameters, and the relationships between the parameters, also comparing them with predictions from RADYN numerical simulations of nanoflare-heated loops. We find that these events, and the presence of nonthermal particles, tend to be more frequent in flare productive active regions, and where the hot 94 Å emission measured by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly is higher. We find evidence for highly dynamic motions characterized by strong Si iv nonthermal velocities (not dependent on the heliocentric x -coordinate, i.e., on the angle between the magnetic field and the line of sight) and asymmetric Mg ii spectra. These findings provide tight new constraints on the properties of nanoflares and nonthermal particles in active regions, and their effects on the lower atmosphere.

We have developed an algorithm to identify solar spicules in the first ever systematic survey of on-disk spicules exclusively using Mg ii spectral observations. Using this algorithm we identify 2021 events in three Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) data sets with unique solar feature targets spanning a total of 300 minutes: (1) active region, (2) decayed active region/active network, and (3) coronal hole. We present event statistics and relate occurrence rates to the underlying photospheric magnetic field strength. This method identifies spicule event densities and occurrence rates similar to previous studies performed using H α and Ca ii observations of active regions. Additionally, this study identifies spicule-like events at very low rates at magnetic field intensities below 20 G, and increasing significantly between 100 and 200 G in active regions and above 20 G in coronal holes, which can be used to inform future observation campaigns. This information can be be used to help characterize spicules over their full lifetimes, and compliments existing H α spectral capabilities and upcoming Ly α spectral observations with the Solar eruptioN Integral Field Spectrograph (SNIFS) sounding rocket. In total, this study presents a method for detecting solar spicules exclusively using Mg ii spectra, and provides statistics for spicule occurrences in the Mg ii h line with respect to the magnetic field strength for the purpose of predicting spicule occurrences.

Abstract Over decades, sunspots and their fine structures have been studied in detail at the photospheric level with different ground-based telescopes, as the surface of the Sun primarily emits light in the visible wavelengths. For a very long period, the upper atmosphere above the sunspot regions, especially the transition region (TR) above sunspots where the plasma emits light in the far ultraviolet (FUV) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV), has been poorly understood. In the past decades after the development of space instrumentations, FUV and EUV observations have uncovered many secrets of the TR above sunspots. In this paper, we present a brief review of research results about the TR structures and dynamics obtained through imaging and spectroscopic observations of sunspots in the past ~ 20 years. Though these observations have gathered remarkable and detailed information and greatly improved our understanding of the TR above the sunspots, paradoxically, they leave us with many new questions which should be answered in the future.

For accurate electron density diagnostics in the solar transition region, the principle of electron density diagnostics are discussed by lines from Si VIII ion for kappa and Maxwellian distributions By observed line ratio of the Si VIII 1440.50 to 1445.75 Å lines in quiet sun and active region, the electron density is discussed for any observed line ratio, and results are consistent with reported values in literature. The relationships between line ratio and electron density for the kappa and Maxwellian distributions are also discussed, in the case of lower and higher electron density limits, and results indicate that different distributions have no effect on relationships between the line ratio and the electron density at lower or higher electron density limit. This discussion is significant for accurate electron density diagnostics in the solar transition region, which will be important for study on coronal heating and acceleration of solar wind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For temperature diagnostics of plasma, using the silicon spectral lines emitted from the solar transition region, under the optically-thin conditions, we discuss temperature diagnostics of the quiet sun in some typical features. For the silicon IV 112.8325 nm and 140.2770 nm spectral lines, using the observed intensity ratio, we calculate the temperature of faint cell center, average cell center, average quiet sun, average network, bright network and very bright network of the quiet sun, and results are in good agreement with those predicted at the ionization equilibrium temperature of formation of the silicon IV, and we discuss the temperature when the observed intensity varies from 0.05 to 0.2. This investigation will be significant for temperature diagnostics of plasma under the optically-thin conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For accurate spectral diagnostics of the solar plasma in the transition region, the averaged collision strength of the κ distribution of electron energies is discussed for non-Maxwellian distribution, and the Maxwellian averaged collision strengths and the non-Maxwellian averaged collision strengths for κ = 2, 3 and 5 from 10 4.4 to 10 6.0 K are calculated for Carbon II doublet in the transition region. Results are in agreement with those from the CHIANTI database, and the main error comes from the approximation of the collision strength. This calculation will be significant for spectral diagnostics of the solar plasma for non-Maxwellian distribution of the electron energies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the time of the two last solar total eclipses of August 1st, 2008 in Siberia and July 11th, 2010 in French Polynesia, high frame rate CCD flash spectra were obtained. These eclipses occurred in quiet Sun period and after. The slitless flash spectra show two helium shells, in the weak Paschen α 4686 Å line of the ionized helium HeII and in the neutral helium HeI line at 4713 Å. The extensions of these helium shells are typically 3 Mm. In prominences, the extension of the interface with the corona is much more extended. The observations and analysis of these lines can properly be done only in eclipse conditions, when the intensity threshold reaches the coronal level, and the parasitic scattered light is virtually zero. Under the layers of 1 Mm above the limb, many faint low FIP lines were also seen in emission. These emission lines are superposed on the continuum containing absorption lines. The solar limb can be defined using the weak continuum appearing between the emission lines at the time of the second and third contact. The variations of the singly ionized iron line, the HeI and HeII lines and the continuum intensity are analyzed. The intensity ratio of ionized to neutral helium is studied for evaluating the ionization rate in low layers up to 2 Mm and also around a prominence.

For spectral diagnostics in the solar transition region under the collision–equilibrium condition, the method for electron density diagnostics by the collisional excitation is discussed in this paper. By using observed signal ratio of spectral lines produced by the oxygen VI ion, we discuss the electron density by this method. We find that this method is valid for a large region of signal ratio (from 2.001 to 4.162). We obtain that the electron density increases with increasing signal ratio of the oxygen VI doublet, and the plasma has an electron density on the order of magnitude of 106–107 cm−3. This discussion will be significant for study on spectral diagnostics of the solar transition region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]