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This article discusses the dialogue and circulation of scientific knowledge in the South-South context between Brazil and the African Portuguese Speaking Countries (PALOP), focusing on the Political Science and Political Sociology fields. The main questions are: What strategies have been implemented to foster educational cooperation between Brazil and African countries? How much and for whom do these policies provide educational opportunities? Methodologically, the analysis covers historical, political, and diplomatic aspects that have driven collaboration between Brazil and PALOP in education. We based our analysis on a qualitative literature review, triangulated with quantitative data from Brazilian educational policies. The main conclusion is that Brazil has played a relevant role in training PALOP professionals in recent decades through its foreign policy in the educational field, enabling an epistemic dialogue between Africa and Latin America. Therefore, educational cooperation establishes bridges connecting the Brazilian way of thinking and building Social Sciences and the scientific approaches developed in the PALOP, which can serve as an example for other countries that want to strengthen South-South knowledge production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on interactions and cooperation between peoples and countries of the Global South which are getting more relevant in the contemporary era. It analyses mainly socialist tendencies in the South-South cooperation by specifying three issues: a conceptual typology of states, and interrelated concepts of independence and development. It proceeds in the following sequence of steps. First, it explains the typology of states in the Global South, specifically by using the global comparative typology of socialist countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Second, it identifies the basic kinds of periods of the struggle for independence and the struggle for development since World War II to specify the cooperation conceptually in a chronological way. From perspectives of social and political philosophy and global studies, the article contributes to the understanding of cooperation in the contemporary multipolar and multilateral tendencies in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the transborder activities of the Hmong people within the tri-state area of China, Vietnam, and Laos, which emphasises their adaptive strategies in the face of evolving geopolitical and economic contexts. Through comprehensive multisite ethnographic fieldwork and snowball sampling, this study captures a wide array of perspectives from individuals directly engaged in industries crucial to the borderlands' economy, such as tourism, hospitality, and trade. It highlights the Hmong's utilisation of cultural and linguistic capital to navigate opportunities within and across their transnational networks. Key to their adaptive strategies is the role of South-South cooperation, which fosters regional integration and offers new economic opportunities while also allowing ethnic locals to retain significant aspects of their livelihoods. This study provides insights into how the Hmong community utilises both traditional clan systems and modern entrepreneurial practices to enhance their economic standing and cultural engagement across borders, which contributes to a broader understanding of minority groups' roles in global and regional development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, discussions about the essence of humanitarization and humanization of international relations have intensified due to the aggravation of economic, social, and ethical problems against the background of a sharp deterioration in the international situation, particularly in the Global South. This paper aims to identify the specifics and provide a comparative analysis of the approaches of both the developed and developing states of the North and the South to the formats, content and purpose of humanitarian diplomacy in contemporary world politics. The first section examines academic discussions on the issues of humanitarian diplomacy. The authors highlight two main approaches in foreign and Russian international political studies to addressing the humanitarian problems of the Global South — an objectal and a subjectal ones. The former is typically associated with the developed countries of the Global North and is rooted in the practices of the colonial era. The latter gained prominence in academic research in the 21st century with the emergence of the ‘new donors’, which promoted joint development programs led by the countries of the Global South and built on regional financial institutions. At the same time, the authors note that academic research tends to focus primarily on the dynamics of aid flows and conditions for development assistance, while a number of current trends in the humanitarian diplomacy remain understudied. These trends are examined in the second section of the article. The authors emphasize the growing trend towards transnationalization and privatization of humanitarian diplomacy, active involvement of non-state and hybrid actors. The third section outlines the key features of humanitarian diplomacy of the leading countries of the Global South (China, India, Turkey), as well as that of the ASEAN states and Arab monarchies. The authors identify several general principles of humanitarian diplomacy shared by the countries of the Global South: a broad, pluralistic understanding of the humanitarian agenda to include cultural, scientific, academic, and youth policy issues; commitment to the ideas of solidarity and humanitarian cooperation (instead of the donor-recipient model); normative neutrality of the humanitarian policy; adherence to the principles of state sovereignty.

The article proposes a history of the concepts of “Global South” and “South-South Cooperation” and suggests that it has been progressively moving away from critical meanings and promises of transformation of the world system and the international arena. A fashionable concept in the international debate and of vague geographical/geopolitical origin, “Global South” has been associated or sharing space with other ideas that are even vaguer than it, such as “developing countries” and “emerging countries”. To make this brief history of the concept, it will be interesting to map ideas throughout a global history (since it began to exist) that have served to name roughly the same geographical space that today corresponds to the Global South. The article defends the thesis that, among all the alternatives that have already been developed, the notions of “center/periphery” and “dependency” are the ones with the greatest critical and emancipatory potential.

Africa-China or Sino-African relations continue to grow stronger. Africa sees China as a partner in development in the context of global South-South Cooperation. As a measure of friendship, China constructed the African Union headquarters at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for free. There has been cooperation between China and African countries. Moreover, China's role in Africa during the independence struggles is well noted and its development assistance to the continent has been phenomenal over the years. As Africa and China relations continue, several bottlenecks continue to mar the relationship. This paper highlights the bottlenecks of Africa-China relations by tracing the historical ties between China and African states. It delves into Africa-China relations in terms of South-South Cooperation and China's foreign policy of non-interference in internal matters of other states. It uses 2019 data to analyze China-Africa trade, investments and revenues accruing to both partners. The paper contributes to knowledge not just in terms of bilateral and multilateral relations but in terms of infrastructure trade and investment in Sino-African relations. It concludes that there is a need for China-African relations to achieve mutual benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South-South Cooperation was first conceived at the 1955 Bandung Conference, which led to the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961 and other important initiatives within the UN system, such as creating the G77 and elaborating the Buenos Aires Plan of Action. Since the beginning of the century, this cooperation modality has re-emerged and is now considered a catalyst for sustainable development. Given this context, this paper aims to analyze its ideological and political origins, definitions, and evolution, highlighting its importance as an instrument of foreign policy and development cooperation. In addition, a comparison between South-South and North-South Cooperation is made through five dimensions: ideas, institutions/political systems, interests, organizations, and vectors/schemes. Through this comparative approach, the author seeks to present consensual aspects of what is understood as South-South Cooperation and portray the diversity of strategies implemented by countries in the Global South. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solidarity is a focal concept in the literature on South-South Cooperation (SSC). This research examines how solidarity is understood by actors involved in SSC. The literature on SSC is divided into two camps. The first camp believes that SSC is firmly grounded in solidarity. Meanwhile, the second camp holds that SSC is motivated by the state's interest and that solidarity, if it occurs, is merely an epiphenomenon. However, this paper suggests that both camps fail to realize that the concept of solidarity manifests in different ways. Keeping this diversity in mind, a typology of solidarity based on Enlightenment ideas of liberty is utilized to systematically categorize the plurality of the concept. The typology maintains that solidarity can take shape in the form of Hobbesian self-centered solidarity, Kantian reflexive rational solidarity, Humean reflexive emotional solidarity, and Hegelian recognitive solidarity. This study analyses the Second High-Level United Nations Conference on South-South Cooperation (BAPA+40) opening speeches and general debate remarks. Types of solidarity are unmasked by examining 38 statements espoused by states, international organisations, and other entities. The findings show that Kantian solidarity is the most prevalent, followed by Hobbesian, Humean, and Hegelian solidarity. Three observations can be inferred in light of these findings. First , the discourse of solidarity in SSC is diverse and multiple. Second , different understandings of solidarity are not evenly distributed amongst statements made by actors of SSC. Some forms of solidarity are more salient. Third , the idea of solidarity is ambivalent. The four types of solidarity articulated are not mutually exclusive. Instead, they can appear simultaneously in actors' articulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Culture serves as a complex needlepoint for societal customs and actions, reflecting aspirations across political, economic, and social domains. This article examines the crucial function of culture in reinvigorating south-south cooperation in Africa. Qualitative research methodologies were employed to analyze scholarly literature, policy documents, and reports. Theoretically, it adopts an inclusive framework that combines constructivist and liberal perspectives. This framework aims to expose the fundamental principles, values, and ideologies that underpin the South--South collaboration in Africa. Moreover, it highlights the profound influence of Africa's historical narrative, which spans the precolonial, colonial, and postcolonial eras, in fostering a collective sense of responsibility and stewardship towards the continent's development trajectory. Additionally, this article emphasizes the transformative role of religion and spirituality in shaping a new African identity conducive to progress and unity. Finally, it underscores the essential role of Africa's creative sector in cultivating the African Renaissance through collaborative South- South initiatives extending across the continent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the Chinese Agriculture Technology Demonstration Center (ATDC) in Africa as a quasi-natural experiment, we examine the causal impacts of China’s aid on crop production in Africa. The data pertain to African country-by-crop panel data from 2000 to 2018. Leveraging the triple difference-in-differences method, we find that the ATDC leads to increased crop production and improved trade dependence. The positive effects are more pronounced for free-standing technical support and ATDCs operated by state-owned enterprises. Lastly, the ATDC has profound implications for local agriculture and rural development.

This paper provides a political economy analysis of the bilateral trade relations and patterns of exchange that existed between Iran and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from 1962 to 2021. The paper contributes to the growing literature on Iran–Africa relations by empirically delineating not just the changes, but also the continuities between Iran and its African trading partners before and after the Iranian Revolution. It also adds nuance to the broader scholarship on South–South cooperation by showing the disparity between the rhetoric of South–South solidarity and reciprocity between Iran and SSA, on one side, and their low and fluctuating trade volumes, on the other. These volumes resulted from historical inertia or path dependency and structural factors, including trade complementarities and geopolitical conditions, more than demographic, cultural, or religious realities. They were also shaped by the agency and decision-making of Iranian and African leaders and officials regarding the extent to economically engage with each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increasingly relevant layer of South–South cooperation (SSC) is the proliferation of interactions between regional organisations, in addition to bilateral cooperation. However, studies on interregionalism often exhibit a Eurocentric bias and a state-centric approach, as they frequently overlook non-state actors in their analyses. This article seeks to expand the conceptualisation of interregionalism into a global phenomenon that is interlinked with regionalism in a reciprocal manner, and that is driven by the mutual impact between different stratifications of interregionalism, involving state as well as non-state actors. Using empirical examples from Latin America, Africa, the Arab World and Europe, the article finds that formal cooperation between regional organisations has a more substantial impact on regionalism, particularly in asymmetric settings. Meanwhile, the emergence of interregional civil society cooperation remains closely tied to the existence of state-driven interregionalism whether as a sponsor or a common adversary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The exchange of knowledge in development cooperation can help overcome common challenges while providing collective solutions. Country, regional and global platforms play a crucial role to facilitate development cooperation at both national and international level, but there is a lack of knowledge on their structure and operationalisation. The aim of this paper is to fill this knowledge gap to assess how global platforms can contribute to bridge the establishment of national priorities with the provision of global public goods. By way of a documentary analysis and semi-structured interviews, the study examines the case of the South-South Galaxy, a platform created by the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation to promote the exchange of solutions among all Southern knowledge sharing platforms. The main results find that each node of knowledge sharing works to build a shared understanding of good practices on the SDGs and make this knowledge universally accessible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the forthcoming South Feminist Manifesto spearheaded by South Feminist Futures, a transnational network of feminists from the Global South. Through extensive cross-regional consultations, the manifesto initiative promises to build solidarity and advance decolonial, anti-capitalist feminism across the Global South. It aims to center plural Southern voices and contexts, integrating diverse critical frameworks from Third World feminism to queer theory. By foregrounding lived realities of Southern women and trans and nonbinary people, the manifesto promises to generate fresh insights and creative South-South solidarities. Drawing inspiration from the pioneering Women's Manifesto for Ghana, it strives to catalyze feminist consciousness raising, movement revival, and more caring, just futures across borders. The article analyzes the manifesto's transformative promises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unpacking the 'crisis of democracy' and what is means and does to policy processes is a new and ever-growing agenda. This paper uses the case of Brazil to examine bureaucratic responses, and attempted resistance, to democratic backsliding and policy dismantling in times of autocratisation, notably under Jair Bolsonaro (2019–2022). It does so by focusing on a less explored transnational lenses. It argues that the growing international embeddedness of Brazilian policies, including through policy transfer and technical cooperation initiatives mostly with other developing countries, has provided domestic sectoral bureaucracies and policy communities with additional strategic discursive and argumentative resources to mobilise, respond and try to resist policy dismantling at home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global diffusion of biotechnology has played a pivotal role in restructuring the global order in the post-Cold War era. Institution of a strong domestic base in biotech has arguably allowed emerging economies in the Global South to negotiate with developed countries from a position of strength. This paper critically examines the rise of Brazil as a case in point to examine the role of biotechnology as a great equaliser of power in North-South relations. It identifies the institution of a strong domestic biotechnology base as a primary facilitator of Brazil's emergence as a globally influential player. The paper does so through delineating the various means through which Brazil has drawn from biotechnology to boost its international image and influence. Firstly, it analyses the nuances within Brazil's domestic biotechnology strategy while underlining their catalytic effect in driving fast-paced advances in the field. Brazil's policy successes with respect to genomics and biofuels are highlighted. The paper discusses Brazil's employment of biotechnology as an effective foreign policy tool in niche diplomacy ventures of health, agriculture, and biofuels to grow its clout in the Global South. Brazil's tactful ability to combine its biotechnology expertise with skilful diplomatic manoeuvring to pioneer novel normative paradigms that favour the Global South has been studied. The paper concludes that Brazil's biotechnology strategy presents a good model for emerging economies in Asia and Africa to emulate to improve their relative standing in the multipolar world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In this paper, we looked at the collaboration publishing patterns for groups of Global South countries (Latin America, Africa, ASEAN, Asian, BRICS), as well as publishing parameters. We looked at financing and the relationships between these groups and the Global North. Data from 2002 to 2021 was collected from InCites ® (Web of Science, Clarivate Analytics) and SciVal® (Scopus Elsevier). The impact was lower for BRICS, while Latin America and Asean countries tended to have a higher Field Weighted Citation Impact. Good Health and well-being (SDG 3) dominates South-South Collaborations. Asian countries showed a higher percentage of Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG7), while Africa and Latin America had a higher rate of Zero Hunger (SDG1). Each region shows different production profiles, but collaboration with the Global North is necessary for all regions. Intra-regional shows a lower impact than inter-regional financing, calling attention to the increasing influence of China in all regions, except for Latin America. The data analysed can be used for orienting South-South scientific Collaboration programs, focusing on pre-existent synergies and on where policy changes and results can be maximised.

What drives Brazil to provide foreign aid to other developing countries? Historically part of the Global South, its active foreign policy strives to become a global power. While research has highlighted Brazil’s foreign policy objectives in providing aid, such as expanding its diplomatic reputation and exporting its development experience abroad, little has been done to note the strategic properties that motivate the development assistance initiatives. Additionally, the emphasis on South-South Cooperation in Brazil’s aid practice is relevant to the literature on the motives of emerging donors. This article assesses Brazil’s act to provide foreign aid between 2003 and 2016 using the theoretical concept of strategic culture, which refers to the nation’s historical norms and values that inform the strategic act of providing foreign aid. We use primary and secondary data that cover findings from official government sources, policy documents, and academic literature. We argue that cultural elements support the formulation of a foreign policy that seeks to expand Brazil’s influence abroad through development assistance diplomacy. Using foreign aid to counteract its material limits, the goal is to raise Brazil’s stature among developing nations and global affairs and maximize its soft power in the South-focused power structure within the post-Cold War multipolar global order.

In 2023, Cuba assumed the presidency of the Group of 77 + China, the world's largest and most diverse multilateral bloc of countries. The election of Cuba to this role testifies to the island's prestige among the Global South, recognition of its material contribution to developing countries, and promotion of South–South cooperation, particularly in the healthcare sector. Cuban medical internationalism tends to be discussed in the rather lonely and nostalgic category of "international solidarity". While there is a rationale for underscoring its uniqueness in motivation, quantity and quality, doing so also facilitates the censoring or sidelining of this extraordinary assistance in international analysis. In the context of Cuba's presidency of the Group of 77 + China, this article frames Cuban medical internationalism in relation to the United Nations principles for South–South cooperation, and the commitment to healthcare as a human right. It also draws on calculations of the monetary value of Cuba's overseas development aid to provide a comparative assessment of the island's contribution to the global south. After noting the key steps and achievements in the development of Cuba's own public healthcare system, the article explores the origins of and motivations for Cuban medical internationalism, providing examples of the four forms of assistance which emerged in response to global circumstances, and which endure today. The article then demonstrates how Cuban international assistance is consistent with the UN's Plan of Action to promote cooperation between developing nations. Finally, it discusses the economics of Cuban medical internationalism, and the campaign to discredit and sabotage Cuban medical exports by opponents of Cuban socialism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background South-South learning exchange (SSLE) refers to an interactive learning process where peers exchange knowledge and experience to work towards a beneficial change. Despite organizations having recently increased the opportunity to run SSLEs, the SSLE support mechanisms and processes are not well documented in the scientific literature. This study explored experts’ perspectives on SSLEs, strengths, weaknesses and mechanisms leading to sustainable outcomes. Methods We conducted a qualitative study using semi-structured interviews on experiences of participants and organizers of SSLEs. Data were collected between 1st September 2021 to 26th November 2021. All data were digitally recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed. In the analysis, we adopted an inductive approach derived from thematic analysis. Results Sixteen experts, who have participated in or facilitated one or more SSLE, were interviewed. The experts’ accounts demonstrated an appreciation of participants’ empowerment, positive peer-to-peer “mind change” and convincing and powerful hands-on learning of this approach as strengths in the implementation of the SSLE. Being resource heavy, participant and donor reluctance and absence of a validated methodology emerged as main weaknesses of the South-South learning approach, which could impair the effectiveness of this scheme. Conclusions The strengths of SSLEs are anchored in the theories of experiential and social learning, highlighting SSLE's potential to create an environment that enhances knowledge exchange. the study highlights the challenges SSLE initiatives face. In particular, these include limited commitment and funds, limited evidence of impact, disparate approaches, and the absence of standardized guidelines and evaluation practices.

Abstract The failure of the USD 100-billion climate finance pledge under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) could be attributed to a series of reasons: the inconsistent rules, the ambiguity of accountability issues, the political and economic motivations of donor countries, the weak governance capability of developing countries, etc. In addition to the predicament of climate finance commitments made by industrialized nations, South-South cooperation is becoming an important supplemental approach and is acknowledged by the Paris Agreement as an essential means of support. Through studying a broad set of literature on climate finance governance, the study aims to provide a clear picture of the current muddle in climate finance and China’s new role in the architecture. We do this by first looking into the disjointed system of reporting and accounting standards for climate finance as well as what causes the international climate finance gap. On the one hand, the self-interests and geopolitical concerns of donor countries led to considerable challenges to distributive justice in climate finance allocation. On the other hand, climate finance from rich countries has yet to make a substantial dent in enhancing developing countries’ resilience to climate change. Finally, we argue that China-led climate-related development assistance and South-South cooperation on climate change has a tremendous potential for vulnerable countries to realize their climate action priorities and address the climate injustice.

Education collaboration is important to increase the quality of human capital. South-South cooperation is conducted to exchange resources, technology, skills, and knowledge between southern countries. The purpose of this research is to investigate the collaboration between Indonesia and South Africa toward advancing South-South Cooperation in education. The data collection used in this qualitative research is an interview and literature study with 9 purposive informants from the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Indonesia Ministry of Education and Culture, and the Embassy of South Africa. The data were obtained within six months. The interview was primarily used to explore the roles and practices of government institutions and universities in fostering education collaboration and human resources development. In this study, the South-South Cooperation helps Indonesia address its educational needs. The result showed that most international education cooperation between both countries is agreed upon at the University-to-University level through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), facing less sustainable challenges and low impact. Therefore, an investment-led model, multi-stakeholder collaboration, and a tool to monitor and evaluate this process are needed to improve South-South Cooperation to achieve its goals.

Currently, the role of the private sector in international cooperation has often been discussed in the main forums. This article aims to contribute to this debate offering a gathering of the Brazilian companies operations in the global South and its possible engagement in international cooperation projects. This study focused on the sample delimited, firstly, by the Ranking FDC das Multinacionais Brasileiras 2017, and secondly, by the state publicly traded companies, at federal level. Aspects such as profiles and models of engagement; the engagement motivations; the accession to international agreements; and evaluation mechanisms were highlighted. From the Brazilian experience, thus, this research is inserted within the broad debate on private sector engagement (PSE) in the international cooperation context.

Abstract Background Trilateral South‒South cooperation is envisioned as an equal and empowering partnership model but still faces certain challenges. This study addresses whether and how trilateral South‒South cooperation can transform traditional development assistance for health (DAH) and explores the opportunities and challenges of trilateral South‒South cooperation for transforming future DAH, in the theme of “the emerging development partner’s DAH transformation facilitated by a multilateral organization”. Methods We evaluate a maternal, newborn, and child health (MNCH) project involving the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and China (hereinafter referred to as the “DRC–UNICEF–China project”). We analyze data from project documents and seventeen semi-structured interviews using a pragmatic analytical framework based on the DAH program logic model and the OECD’s trilateral cooperation framework. Results Evidence from the DRC–UNICEF–China MNCH project suggests that trilateral South‒South cooperation facilitated by a multilateral organization can provide transformative opportunities for emerging development partners’ DAH to generate and deliver context-based, demand-oriented solutions, harmonize rules and procedures, institutionalize mutual learning and knowledge sharing, and increase the visibility of emerging development partners as sources for South‒South development experience transfer. However, the project revealed some challenges, including the neglect of key stakeholders in the complex governance structure, the high transaction costs needed to ensure transparency, and the harm local absence of the emerging development partner poses to long-term DAH engagement. Conclusions This study echoes some of the findings in trilateral SSC literature that claim power structures and philanthropic, normative justification for health equity are often juxtaposed in trilateral SSC partnerships. The opportunities offered by the DRC–UNICEF–China project align with China’s cognitive learning process for strengthening international engagement and global image building. However, challenges may arise as a result of complex governance structures and the entrustment of facilitating partners, which can threaten the effectiveness of trilateral cooperation. We call for strengthening the beneficiary partner’s ownership at all levels, engaging the emerging development partner to better understand the beneficiary partner’s local context(s) and needs, and ensuring available resources to support programmatic activities and long-term partnerships for the health and well-being of the beneficiaries.

Education collaboration is important to increase the quality of human capital. South-South cooperation is conducted to exchange resources, technology, skills, and knowledge between southern countries. The purpose of this research is to investigate the collaboration between Indonesia and South Africa toward advancing South-South Cooperation in education. The data collection used in this qualitative research is an interview and literature study with 9 purposive informants from the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Indonesia Ministry of Education and Culture, and the Embassy of South Africa. The data were obtained within six months. The interview was primarily used to explore the roles and practices of government institutions and universities in fostering education collaboration and human resources development. In this study, the South-South Cooperation helps Indonesia address its educational needs. The result showed that most international education cooperation between both countries is agreed upon at the University-to-University level through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), facing less sustainable challenges and low impact. Therefore, an investment-led model, multi-stakeholder collaboration, and a tool to monitor and evaluate this process are needed to improve South-South Cooperation to achieve its goals.

Abstract Over the past few decades, South-South cooperation has grown in terms of actors, volume, geographic reach, instruments, and modalities, but, statistics on this type of cooperation have been incomplete and fragmented. The technical, political, and institutional challenges in measuring South-South cooperation are emphasised by countries like Brazil and Mexico, chosen as cases to be analysed in the text. The article explores the experiences in measuring international cooperation provided by Brazil and Mexico, starting with the characterization of the two national trajectories in the quantification and the modalities that determine the process, and analyses the main similarities and differences presented between the cases. The analysis of the countries studied in this article evidence the different institutional designs of international cooperation and the establishment of measurement models elaborated by governments based on their own realities of international cooperation, indicating, therefore, that the process of measuring international cooperation is not only a statistical issue, but above all, a political one. Seen in these terms, South-South cooperation measurement exercises have provided more knowledge about how cooperation activities are organized and their relation to global development agendas, and have also consolidated the transparency of public expenditure.cooperation and development; South-South cooperation; public expenditure; Brazil; Mexico; measurement.

The failure of the USD 100-billion climate finance pledge under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) could be attributed to a series of reasons: the inconsistent rules, the ambiguity of accountability issues, the political and economic motivations of donor countries, the weak governance capability of developing countries, etc. In addition to the predicament of climate finance commitments made by industrialized nations, South-South cooperation is becoming an important supplemental approach and is acknowledged by the Paris Agreement as an essential means of support. Through studying a broad set of literature on climate finance governance, the study aims to provide a clear picture of the current muddle in climate finance and China's new role in the architecture. We do this by first looking into the disjointed system of reporting and accounting standards for climate finance as well as what causes the international climate finance gap. On the one hand, the self-interests and geopolitical concerns of donor countries led to considerable challenges to distributive justice in climate finance allocation. On the other hand, climate finance from rich countries has yet to make a substantial dent in enhancing developing countries' resilience to climate change. Finally, we argue that China-led climate-related development assistance and South-South cooperation on climate change has a tremendous potential for vulnerable countries to realize their climate action priorities and address the climate injustice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]