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Recently, there has been a sharp increase in interest in the consumption of ancient grain crops (spelt, einkorn, emmer). In this connection, the sown areas for these crops are increasing, and the main volume of grown cereals is not for animal consumption, but for human consumption. Such a shift in consumption leads to increased requirements for the quality of grain and its processing products. Taking into account the increase in processing volumes, it is necessary to use serial high-performance equipment, which, unfortunately, does not satisfy grain processors due to the peculiarities of the structure of the grain and ears of these grain crops, which affects its efficiency. The paper considers various designs of huskers that are trying to be used in husking spelt and other grain crops. Their technological schemes have been built and analyzed from the point of view of the efficiency of spelt processing. This allowed us to group different designs of huskers and summarize their technological capabilities. Technological schemes with different peeling machines (peeling machine with abrasive discs, with rubber shafts, centrifugal action, impact peelers using a vibropneumatic table and friction separator) were analyzed, which have their own characteristics in separating peeled grain from unpeeled. A general abbreviated technological scheme for cleaning and peeling spelt grain was considered. Its variations in terms of practical application were indicated. A peeler design with an improved scheme for installing a sieve basket was developed. When introducing the newly created equipment at the enterprises of the industry, it was found that the use of an impact-peeling machine allows to improve economic performance: increase labor productivity by 1.375 times, reduce specific electricity consumption by 3.3 kW, obtain a profit of 290,153 UAH, recoup capital investments in 2.12 years, which is economically feasible. The calculations performed indicate the economic feasibility and economic efficiency of improving the impact-peeling machine.

Recently, there has been a sharp increase in interest in the consumption of ancient grain crops (spelt, einkorn, emmer). In this connection, the sown areas for these crops are increasing, and the main volume of grown cereals is not for animal consumption, but for human consumption. Such a shift in consumption leads to increased requirements for the quality of grain and its processing products. Taking into account the increase in processing volumes, it is necessary to use serial high-performance equipment, which, unfortunately, does not satisfy grain processors due to the peculiarities of the structure of the grain and ears of these grain crops, which affects its efficiency. The paper considers various designs of huskers that are trying to be used in husking spelt and other grain crops. Their technological schemes have been built and analyzed from the point of view of the efficiency of spelt processing. This allowed us to group different designs of huskers and summarize their technological capabilities. Technological schemes with different peeling machines (peeling machine with abrasive discs, with rubber shafts, centrifugal action, impact peelers using a vibropneumatic table and friction separator) were analyzed, which have their own characteristics in separating peeled grain from unpeeled. A general abbreviated technological scheme for cleaning and peeling spelt grain was considered. Its variations in terms of practical application were indicated. A peeler design with an improved scheme for installing a sieve basket was developed. When introducing the newly created equipment at the enterprises of the industry, it was found that the use of an impact-peeling machine allows to improve economic performance: increase labor productivity by 1.375 times, reduce specific electricity consumption by 3.3 kW, obtain a profit of 290,153 UAH, recoup capital investments in 2.12 years, which is economically feasible. The calculations performed indicate the economic feasibility and economic efficiency of improving the impact-peeling machine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Objectives: The "One Health" approach underscores the connection between human, animal, and environmental health, promoting solutions to global challenges like climate change and biodiversity loss. The Planetary Health Diet (PHD) promotes a plant-based diet with organically grown plants to reduce the environmental impact of meat production and decrease the risk of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The BIOQUALIM project will evaluate the PHD's effectiveness in preventing NCDs like periodontal diseases and cancers through four inter-related studies. Methods: The clinical study will involve volunteers reducing their meat consumption and incorporating einkorn into their diet, allow for analysis of their interdental microbiota, oral health, general health, and quality of life. The chemical analysis will study nutrients and anti-cancer compounds in einkorn and common wheat varieties. The behavioral study will explore PHD knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to PHD. The psycho-social study will evaluate the impact of peer-support workshops on plant-based dietary cooking among post-therapy cancer patients. Results: The results are expected to demonstrate that einkorn varieties possess nutritional properties that, when incorporated into the PHD enriched with einkorn, can enhance health markers. This study will identify barriers to and facilitators of PHD adoption and highlight how peer-support workshops can improve dietary adherence. Conclusions: BIOQUALIM's transdisciplinary approach will demonstrate the PHD's role in preventing NCDs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A properly designed crop rotation contributes to the equilibrium of the agro-ecosystem and the volume and quality of the yield. The cultivation of spelt in crop rotations enriches its biodiversity and provides grains with many different types of nutritional value. The aim of this current study was to investigate how the distribution of winter spelt in different positions and after different forecrops in four-field crop rotations would affect the technological quality of the grain, the nutrient content of the grain, and the grain yield. A 6-year field experiment, designed in a randomised block, was conducted from 2012 to 2018 in north-eastern Poland (53°35′47″ N, 19°51′20″ E). This study provides the results from a 6-year (2013–2018) field experiment. The spelt was cultivated in four crop rotations: CR1—winter rape + catch crop (blue tansy), spring barley, field pea and winter spelt; CR2,—winter rape, winter spelt + catch crop (blue tansy), field pea and winter spelt; CR3—winter rape + catch crop (blue tansy), field pea, winter spelt and winter spelt; and CR4—winter rape, winter spelt + catch crop (blue tansy), spring barley and winter spelt. This study evaluated grain yield and the following grain parameters: the total protein, wet gluten and starch contents, the Zeleny index, the falling number, the weight of 1000 grains, the N, P, K, Mg, Ca, Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn contents, and the grain yield. The results were assessed at the significance level p < 0.05. It was demonstrated that the cultivation of spelt in all four crop rotations after winter rape and after field pea was characterised by higher protein and wet gluten contents, Zeleny index value and falling number, a greater weight of 1000 grains, higher N, P, Fe and Zn contents, and greater grain yield than those harvested from the crop rotations CR3 and CR4 after spelt and after barley. It was demonstrated that the cultivation of spelt in crop rotations CR3 and CR4, in succession after spelt and after barley, caused deterioration in grain quality (lower protein and gluten contents, a lower Zeleny index value, a lower falling number, and a smaller weight of 1000 grains, and the N, P, Fe and Zn contents). In addition, a smaller grain yield was obtained from these crop rotation fields. Regardless of the type of crop rotation, the cultivation of spelt after winter rape and after pea produced a high yield and a good quality yield of this cereal. Due to the lower yield of grain and its lower quality, it is not recommended that winter spelt is grown after each other or after spring barley. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenolic acids were identified, and their content was determined in the grain of four species of wheat: common wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare), spelt (T. aestivum ssp. spelta), durum (T. turgidum ssp. durum), and einkorn (T. monococcum) grown at two different levels of cultivation technology: medium and high. Thirteen acids were identified for each species. Einkorn cultivar PL 5003 had the highest content of phenolic acids, reaching up to 2106 mg 100 g−1 DM. The response of various species to the levels of technology applied was varied, but ferulic acid was always predominant (465–868 mg 100 g−1 DM). Common wheat and spelt responded with a decrease in the content of the acids when tested using the higher level of technology (on average by 265 and 62 mg), while their content increased in durum wheat and einkorn (282 and 352 mg). A clear response to weather conditions was also observed; most of the genotypes had a higher content of phenolic acids when there was more rainfall. The present study provides the basis for using these genotypes to produce food with increased nutritional content using appropriate agricultural procedures.

The introduction of additives of plant or animal origin into meat products is currently a steady trend in food technologies due to the possibility of obtaining unique properties of products and reducing their cost, which justifies the relevance of the conducted research. The purpose of the study was to build a mathematical algorithm that can determine the regularities of changes in the main parameters of the process of preparing minced meat semi-finished products with vegetable additives, which would help to establish the trends in the development of technical and technological efficiency of mechanisation of the system of fine grinding of raw materials for the production of sausage products. The addition of spelt flour and mushrooms as ingredients to the minced meat mass was investigated, which allows, together with reducing the cost of production of cooked sausage products, significantly improving the organoleptic quality indicators of products, reducing their caloric content and extending the shelf life for consumption. The wild variety of spelt used in this scientific work as an alternative to its cultivated varieties has significantly less allergic activity and, accordingly, a lower proportion of gliadins, which form the basis of wheat gluten; which justifies the practical significance of the study. A microstructural analysis of minced meat of control and experimental samples of boiled sausages was performed, which revealed that the latter category of meat product is characterised by increased density and elasticity due to the inclusion of spelt microparticles in the vacuole of the meat fraction. According to the results of experimental studies, using the "dimension analysis" method and the Federman-Buckingham theorem, it was possible to obtain a criterion equation for the process of heat and mass transfer under conditions of intensive mechanical mixing. These process characteristics were described using the Euler, Fourier, and Sherwood criteria. The compiled function contains the main factors of external influence on raw materials and their physical and mechanical characteristics, which allows adequately assessing the diffusion processes in the technological environment and creating the recommended range when designing technical and technological support for obtaining high-quality food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine the main elements of ear productivity, yield and mass fraction of protein in the grain of the studied species and varieties of winter wheat, depending on the pre-sowing treatment of seeds with “Chlorella suspension”. Methods. Field trials with different varieties of winter wheat (T. aestivum, T. spelta and T. durum) were carried out in 2020–2022 at the experimental field of the MNAU’s Educational, Scientific and Practical Centre. Before sowing, the seeds of the varieties studied were treated with the biological preparation “Chlorella suspension”. Results. During the years of research, it was possible to determine the varietal response to weather conditions that influenced the formation of the main elements of winter wheat productivity. For example, the highest number of productive stems (858 pcs/m2 ) was produced by plants of the variety ‘Vidrada’ (T. aestivum) in the variant with pre-sowing seed treatment with “Chlorella suspension”. In 2020, spelt plants of the ‘Evropa’ variety had the highest grain weight per ear (1.21 g), but the lowest number of productive stems (435 pcs/m2 ). ‘Shestopalivka’ (T. aestivum) and ‘Evropa’ (T. spelta) produced the maximum grain yield in 2021 (6.92 and 5.75 t/ha, respectively), ‘Bosfor’ (T. durum) – in 2022 (5.71 t/ha). On average over the three years of the trial, the highest yield was observed in the ‘Shestopalivka’ soft winter wheat plants in the variant with pre-sowing seed treatment with “Chlorella suspension” – 6.01 t/ha, which is 0.22–2.48 t/ha more than in other variants of the trial. The lowest yield level was observed in spelt plants of variety ‘Zoria Ukrainy’ in the seed treatment with water (control variant) – from 2.74 t/ha in 2020 to 4.12 t/ha in 2022. The mass fraction of protein in grain in the variant with the use of “Chlorella suspension” among T. aestivum and T. durum varieties was distinguished by ‘Vidrada’ (15.8–15.9%) and ‘Lincor’ (14.6%), among T. spelta varieties – ‘Zoria Ukrainy’ (20.2%). Conclusions. The developed elements of the technology of winter wheat cultivation allow to increase the yield and quality of grain in the Southern Steppe of Ukraine, which confirms the relevance of this field of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the effect of ancient wheat flour type and sourdough fermentation time on the nutritional, textural and sensorial properties of fiber-rich sourdough bread. The proximate composition, minerals, carbohydrates, organic acids, volatiles, total phenolic content, simulated gastrointestinal digestion, textural and sensorial characteristics were investigated. Bread's minerals, total phenolics, cellulose contents and radical scavenging activity variations clearly indicates an increasing trend with sourdoughs fermentation time. Compared to maltose and glucose, fructose was predominant in all bread samples. Sourdough fermentation time and wheat type had non-significant influence on fructose content from digested fraction. Excepting emmer bread, fermentation time increased in vitro digestibility values for tested samples. The crumb textural parameters (hardness, gumminess, chewiness, cohesiveness and springiness index) were positively influenced by fermentation time. The specific clustering of the analysed characteristics distinguished emmer bread from other samples in terms of volatile compounds, textural and overall acceptability, being preferred by panellists.

Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is an important wheat subspecies mainly cultivated in Europe before the 20th century that has contributed to modern wheat breeding as a valuable genetic resource. However, relatively little is known about the origins and maintenance of spelt populations. Here, using resequencing data from 416 worldwide wheat accessions, including representative spelt wheat, we demonstrate that European spelt emerged when primitive hexaploid wheat spread to the west and hybridized with pre-settled domesticated emmer, the putative maternal donor. Genomic introgression regions from domesticated emmer confer spelt’s primitive morphological characters used for species taxonomy, such as tenacious glumes and later flowering. We propose a haplotype-based “spelt index” to identify spelt-type wheat varieties and to quantify utilization of the spelt gene pool in modern wheat cultivars. This study reveals the genetic basis for the establishment of the spelt wheat subspecies in a specific ecological niche and the vital role of the spelt gene pool as a unique germplasm resource in modern wheat breeding.

This research focuses on assessing the general profitability of organically produced spelt. Spelt is an ancient grain that has experienced a resurgence in Serbia in the late seventies of the previous century, due to its exceptional nutritional value and high compatibility with organic farming. Field experiments were conducted in northern Serbia over four years, applying further financial analysis. The main goal of the research is to identify and quantify the costs, benefits, and general profitability of organic production of spelt in the climatic conditions of Serbia. Results indicate that organically produced spelt is economically profitable, primarily due to its significantly higher market price compared to conventionally produced spelt. Given climate change concerns, promoting the cultivation of climateresilient crops, like spelt, becomes crucial. Organic spelt cultivation could play a significant role in adapting crops to climate change, emphasizing the need for activities that mitigate negative environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine differences in the technological quality of grain of hybrids between spelt ( Triticum spelta ) and bread wheat ( T. aestivum ) as compared with the grain of their parental forms, i.e., modern bread wheat cultivars and spelt breeding lines. The content of basic nutrients in grain, milling quality of grain, rheological properties of dough, and bread quality were evaluated. Grain yields were around 18% lower in hybrid lines than in bread wheat. Gluten content was significantly higher in the grain of hybrid lines (34.0 vs . 27.5 g/100 g), and it did not differ significantly from that noted in spelt grain (36.1 g/100 g). The gluten index did not differ significantly between hybrid lines and bread wheat cultivars (77 vs . 85), and it was significantly higher than in spelt (43). Protein content was significantly higher in the flour obtained from hybrid lines than from bread wheat. Analyzed dough parameters in hybrid lines assumed intermediate values relative to parental forms, and protein parameters had a stronger discriminatory power than starch parameters. Bread made from the grain of single-cross hybrids between spelt and bread wheat was characterized by high quality and in many cases superior attributes relative to bread made from spelt flour. The study demonstrated that hybrids between T. spelta and T. aestivum can become a new, valuable source of grain for bread production.

A properly designed crop rotation contributes to the equilibrium of the agro-ecosystem and the volume and quality of the yield. The cultivation of spelt in crop rotations enriches its biodiversity and provides grains with many different types of nutritional value. The aim of this current study was to investigate how the distribution of winter spelt in different positions and after different forecrops in four-field crop rotations would affect the technological quality of the grain, the nutrient content of the grain, and the grain yield. A 6-year field experiment, designed in a randomised block, was conducted from 2012 to 2018 in north-eastern Poland (53°35′47″ N, 19°51′20″ E). This study provides the results from a 6-year (2013–2018) field experiment. The spelt was cultivated in four crop rotations: CR1—winter rape + catch crop (blue tansy), spring barley, field pea and winter spelt; CR2,—winter rape, winter spelt + catch crop (blue tansy), field pea and winter spelt; CR3—winter rape + catch crop (blue tansy), field pea, winter spelt and winter spelt; and CR4—winter rape, winter spelt + catch crop (blue tansy), spring barley and winter spelt. This study evaluated grain yield and the following grain parameters: the total protein, wet gluten and starch contents, the Zeleny index, the falling number, the weight of 1000 grains, the N, P, K, Mg, Ca, Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn contents, and the grain yield. The results were assessed at the significance level p < 0.05. It was demonstrated that the cultivation of spelt in all four crop rotations after winter rape and after field pea was characterised by higher protein and wet gluten contents, Zeleny index value and falling number, a greater weight of 1000 grains, higher N, P, Fe and Zn contents, and greater grain yield than those harvested from the crop rotations CR3 and CR4 after spelt and after barley. It was demonstrated that the cultivation of spelt in crop rotations CR3 and CR4, in succession after spelt and after barley, caused deterioration in grain quality (lower protein and gluten contents, a lower Zeleny index value, a lower falling number, and a smaller weight of 1000 grains, and the N, P, Fe and Zn contents). In addition, a smaller grain yield was obtained from these crop rotation fields. Regardless of the type of crop rotation, the cultivation of spelt after winter rape and after pea produced a high yield and a good quality yield of this cereal. Due to the lower yield of grain and its lower quality, it is not recommended that winter spelt is grown after each other or after spring barley.

This research focuses on assessing the general profitability of organically produced spelt. Spelt is an ancient grain that has experienced a resurgence in Serbia in the late seventies of the previous century, due to its exceptional nutritional value and high compatibility with organic farming. Field experiments were conducted in northern Serbia over four years, applying further financial analysis. The main goal of the research is to identify and quantify the costs, benefits, and general profitability of organic production of spelt in the climatic conditions of Serbia. Results indicate that organically produced spelt is economically profitable, primarily due to its significantly higher market price compared to conventionally produced spelt. Given climate change concerns, promoting the cultivation of climateresilient crops, like spelt, becomes crucial. Organic spelt cultivation could play a significant role in adapting crops to climate change, emphasizing the need for activities that mitigate negative environmental impacts.

Allelic variation within genes controlling the vernalisation requirement (VRN1) and photoperiod response (PPD1) determines the adaptation of wheat to different environmental growing conditions as well as influences other traits related to grain yield. This study aimed to screen a Spanish spelt wheat collection using gene-specific molecular markers for VRN-A1, VRN-B1, VRN-D1, and PPD-D1 loci and to phenotype for heading date (HD) in both field and greenhouse experiments under a long photoperiod and without vernalisation. Fifty-five spelt genotypes (91.7%) exhibited a spring growth habit, and all of them carried at least one dominant VRN1 allele, whereas five (8.3%) genotypes had a winter growth habit, and they carried the triple recessive allele combination. The Vrn-D1s was the most frequent allele in the studied set of spelt accessions, and it was found in combination with both the dominant Vrn-A1b and/or Vrn-B1a alleles in 88.3% of the spelt accessions tested. All spelt accessions carried the photoperiod-sensitive Ppd-D1b allele, which may explain the late heading of spelt germplasm compared to the commercial spring bread wheat Setenil used as a control. The least significant difference test showed significant differences between allelic combinations, the earliest accessions being those carrying two or three dominant alleles, followed by the one-gene combinations. In addition, the genetic diversity was evaluated through capillary electrophoresis using 15 wheat simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Most markers had high levels of polymorphism, producing 95 different alleles which ranged between 53 and 279 bp in size. Based on the polymorphic information content values obtained (from 0.51 to 0.97), 12 out of the 15 SSRs were catalogued as informative markers (values > 0.5). According to the dendrogram generated, the spelt accessions clustered as a separate group from the commercial bread wheat Setenil. Knowledge of VRN1 and PPD1 alleles, heading time, and genetic variability using SSR markers is valuable for spelt wheat breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this study were to evaluate and compare the radical scavenging activities (DPPH), phenolic concentrations and concentrations of selected phenolic acids (PAs) of spelt cultivars and breeding lines with common wheat in a three-year controlled field experiment under conditions of organic farming. No significant variations were observed in the total and free DPPH of Altgold, Ebners Rotkorn, Ostro and PN-1-36 with common wheat. The total DPPH ranged from 52.13% to the lowest value of 44.01% in Franckenkorn. Total, free and bound phenolic concentrations were the highest for common wheat (1902.55 µg FAE g−1 DM of total), while all spelt cultivars achieved significantly lower values (from 1434.94 µg FAE g−1 DM in Franckenkorn to 1650.22 µg FAE g−1 DM in Ebners Rotkorn). Bound phenolic compounds represented 86.3% of the total ones. An extremely dry and warm ripening period had a negative impact on the synthesis of phenolic compounds. The highest concentration of total PAs was observed in spelt Ebners Rotkorn (681.75 µg g−1 DM) and the lowest in common wheat (396.05 µg g−1 DM). The total share of free and bound PAs was 5.7% and 74.8%, respectively. The extremely dry and very warm grain filling period had a more evident negative impact on the concentration of free PAs compared to bound forms. The dominant free PA was ferulic (70.48%), followed by syringic (9.30%), p-HBA (5.59%), sinapic acid (5.40%), salicylic (4.18%), p-coumaric acid (3.22%) and caffeic acid (1.93%). Spelt cultivar Ebners Rotkorn was distinguished by the highest concentration of free and bound forms of PAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aimed to study the dynamic changes in phenolic antioxidants between the germ and the rest of the germinated seed of wheat and spelt and to evaluate the whole grain flour from germinated seeds as a functional supplement. Longer germination resulted in higher TPC, DPPH, and ABTS values when considering the entire germinated seed, while the optimal germination time was not consistent when considering the germ and the remaining germinated seed separately. While in the germinated seed (without germ) the majority of TPC was determined to be bound phenolics (up to 92%), the extractable form dominated in the germ (up to 69%). The most abundant phenolic antioxidants in germinated wheat and spelt seeds, trans-ferulic acid, cis-ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid, increased significantly with germination. Only breads with 5% germinated spelt or wheat flour were suitable for the production of a food product, showing higher extractable TPC, antioxidant activity, individual phenolic acids, and improved specific volume, and were preferred because of their appearance, aroma, and color. The PCA biplot showed that the addition of 15% and 30% germinated flours had the greatest positive impact on phenolic properties, while breads with the addition of 5% germinated flour had the greatest positive impact on specific volume and color. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of studies of winter wheat species and varieties depending on the meteorological conditions of the research years. The purpose of the research is to determine the density of the productive stem, the mass of 1000 grains, the yield and quality of winter wheat grain, depending on the species and varietal composition. Methods. Experimental studies were conducted during 2015/2016-2020/2021 yrs in the experimental field of Mykolaiv National Agrarian University (Ukraine). Agricultural techniques for growing winter wheat of various species were generally accepted for the southern steppe zone of Ukraine. Its predecessor was sown peas. Results. It was determined that a larger number of productive stems per unit area (467-853 pcs./m²) formed plants of the studied varieties of soft winter wheat, while the smallest (443-694 pcs./ m²) were plants of winter durum wheat varieties. The largest mass of grain from one ear (1.06-1.20 g) on average over the years of research was formed by plants of spelt wheat varieties, and the smallest was formed 0.96-1.01 g of soft wheat plants. It was found that a higher yield of soft winter wheat (6.03 t/ha) on average over the years of research was formed in the Vidrada variety, hard wheat (5.58 t/ha) was formed in the Bosphorus variety, spelt was formed 5.36 t/ha in the Europa variety. The highest grain yield (7.13 t/ha) among the species and varieties put for study was provided by the Vidrada variety (T. aestivum) in 2016 yr, which was 5.3% more than in the variety Shestopalivka (T. aestivum), 5.9% more than the Linkor variety (T. durum), by 7.0% than the Bosphorus variety (T. durum), by 12.5% than that of the Europa variety (T. spelta) and 43.5% more than the Zorya Ukrainy variety (T. spelta). It was determined that the largest mass fraction of protein in grain was provided by the spelt Zorya Ukrainy wheat variety as 19.2-25.6% depending on the year of research, while the smallest was provided as 11.0-14.2% by the Shestopalivka soft wheat variety. In the conditions of the Southern steppe of Ukraine, to ensure a high grain yield (5.24-6.03 t/ha) with a high protein content (14.1-15.1%), it was recommended to sow the variety of soft winter wheat Vidrada, hard winter wheat as Linkor and spelt as Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine differences in the technological quality of grain of hybrids between spelt (Triticum spelta L.) and bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) as compared with the grain of their parental forms, i.e., modern bread wheat cultivars and spelt breeding lines. The content of basic nutrients in grain, milling quality of grain, rheological properties of dough, and bread quality were evaluated. Grain yields were around 18% lower in hybrid lines than in bread wheat. Gluten content was significantly higher in the grain of hybrid lines (34.0 vs. 27.5 g/100 g), and it did not differ significantly from that noted in spelt grain (36.1 g/100 g). The gluten index did not differ significantly between hybrid lines and bread wheat cultivars (77 vs. 85), and it was significantly higher than in spelt (43). Protein content was significantly higher in the flour obtained from hybrid lines than from bread wheat. Analyzed dough parameters in hybrid lines assumed intermediate values relative to parental forms, and protein parameters had a stronger discriminatory power than starch parameters. Bread made from the grain of single-cross hybrids between spelt and bread wheat was characterized by high quality and in many cases superior attributes relative to bread made from spelt flour. The study demonstrated that hybrids between T. spelta and T. aestivum can become a new, valuable source of grain for bread production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Hulled wheat species have been recognized as interesting raw materials to produce niche products. More research studies are necessary on the hulled wheat species' quality, processability, and functional and nutritional properties to develop novel food products. This study was conducted to evaluate the pasting properties, baking quality, and in vitro starch digestibility of hulled wheat species. Findings: Significantly (p <.05) higher peak viscosity values were observed in spelt, while significantly (p <.05) higher final viscosity values were observed in einkorn. Results of the baking quality revealed that there are potential genotypes of spelt that can be used to make specialty bread with similar loaf characteristics as hard red spring wheat. Significantly (p <.05) higher slowly digestible starch content was found in einkorn, emmer, and spelt compared to hard red spring wheat. Conclusions: Einkorn, emmer, and spelt used in this study, differ from hard red spring wheat in terms of dough properties, baking quality, starch digestibility, and pasting properties. Significance and Novelty: The results of this study made a detailed comparison between hulled wheat and modern bread wheat grown in North Dakota, therefore, results would be useful in breeding to develop and release new and improved lines of hulled wheat species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we investigated the effects of germination on the secondary metabolite composition in spelt grains. Germination significantly increased the content of various metabolites in free and bound forms. Benzoxazinoids were the most important compounds in the free fraction of the 96 h germinated grains (MBOA content as the predominant compound was 277.61 ± 15.29 µg/g DW). The majority of phenolic acids were present in the bound fraction, with trans-ferulic acid as the main component, reaching 753.27 ± 95.87 µg/g DW. The often neglected cis-isomers of phenolic acids accounted for about 20% of the total phenolic acids. High levels of apigenin di-C-glycosides were found in spelt grains, and the schaftoside content was most affected by germination, increasing threefold. The accumulation of secondary metabolites significantly increased the antioxidant activity of germinated spelt. According to the results of this study, the content of most bioactive compounds was highest in spelt grains after 96 h of germination. These data suggest that germinated spelt could potentially be valuable for the production of functional foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing understanding of the relationship between nutrition and human health has led to an increase in the consumption of alternative crops, new cereal varieties and foods with higher nutritional values. In this study we compared nutritional contents and functional-technological properties of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) and bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) whole-meal flours, obtained from the genotypes grown at the same field trial, and their correlation with 1000 kernels weight (TKW). The average values of TKW for spelt and wheat did not significantly differ, while protein and wet gluten content were significantly higher in spelt (18.8% and 53.9% DM) than in wheat flours (12% and 27.3% DM). Although wheat flours were significantly richer in starch (66.4% compared to 62.5% DM), both spelt and wheat had similar amylose and amylopectin content. The analysis of dietary fibers showed that wheat flours had significantly higher hemicellulose and neutral detergent fiber content, as well as total sugar and sucrose. Water holding capacity were significantly higher in wheat flours. Pasting properties of flours did not differ significantly, except for peak viscosity (Vpeak) which was higher for spelt flours. The TKW of spelt genotypes was in the strongest positive correlation with amylopectin and reducing sugar, while in contrary, TKW of wheat was in the strongest positive correlation with amylose. The TKW had positive influence on dietary fibers of wheat and spelt flours (except acid detergent fiber and cellulose). Correlation between TKW and protein, starch and wet gluten was similar for both subspecies. In both subspecies reducing and total sugars content had negative impact on viscosity parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Croissant is one of the puff pastry products. This product is widely distributed in France. The assortment of croissants is very diverse, but in order to increase the assortment and improve the quality of this product, spelt grain flour has been used in our research. The purpose of the research is to study the effect of spelt flour of the Alcoran variety on the quality of puff pastry. The tasks are to consider the production technology of croissant; to investigate the organoleptic and physical and chemical parameters of croissant; to calculate the economic efficiency of the production of croissant. The methods used are the following: the regulatory framework of the research is the legislation of the Russian Federation on standardization and certification, regulatory documents (GOST, technical specifications). The assessment of organoleptic and physical and chemical parameters has been carried out according to the technical specifications 10.71.11-046-38826547-2016. The results are: trial baking has been conducted in the Volgograd State Agrarian University at the Department of Processing Technologies and Food Safety. Puff yeast dough for Croissant is divided into two main technological processes: kneading yeast dough; lamination of dough. The appearance of the croissant with spelt flour is vague, the color is brown, there is a taste of «nutty flavor», sweeter. The conclusion: when calculating the profitability of croissant production, it has been found that the raw material costs of spelt flour products are 1.6 times higher, which is associated with the cost of spelt grain flour. The calculation of profitability has shown an increase in costs by 2% in the production of croissants with spelt flour. The production of spelt culture refers to organic farming. Healthy natural products lead to an increase in the cost of raw materials, which cannot but affect the cost of further products.

To mitigate the environmental harm associated with high-input agriculture, arable farmers are increasingly required to maintain productivity while reducing inputs of synthetic fertilizers. Thus, a diverse range of organic products are now being investigated in terms of their value as alternative fertilizers and soil amendments. This study used a series of glasshouse trials to investigate the effects of an insect frass-based fertilizer derived from black soldier fly waste [HexaFrass™, Meath, Ireland] and biochar on four cereals grown in Ireland (barley, oats, triticale, spelt) as animal feed and for human consumption. In general, the application of low quantities of HexaFrass™ resulted in significant increases in shoot growth in all four cereal species, along with increased foliage concentrations of NPK and SPAD levels (a measure of chlorophyll density). These positive effects of HexaFrass™ on shoot growth were observed, however, only when a potting mix with low basal nutrients was used. Additionally, excessive application of HexaFrass™ resulted in reduced shoot growth and, in some cases, seedling mortality. The application of finely ground or crushed biochar produced from four different feedstocks (Ulex, Juncus, woodchip, olive stone) had no consistent positive or negative effects on cereal shoot growth. Overall, our results indicate that insect frass-based fertilizers have good potential in low-input, organic, or regenerative cereal production systems. Based on our results, biochar appears to have less potential as a plant growth promoting product, but could be used as a tool for lowering whole-farm carbon budgets by providing a simplistic means of storing carbon in farm soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuous development of bakery products as well as the increased demands from consumers transform ancient grains into alternatives with high nutritional potential for modern wheat species. The present study, therefore, follows the changes that occur in the sourdough obtained from these vegetable matrices fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ATCC 8014 during a 24 h. period. The samples were analyzed in terms of cell growth dynamics, carbohydrate content, crude cellulose, minerals, organic acids, volatile compounds, and rheological properties. The results revealed significant microbial growth in all samples, with an average value of 9 log cfu/g but also a high accumulation of organic acids with the increase in the fermentation period. Lactic acid content ranged from 2.89 to 6.65 mg/g, while acetic acid recorded values between 0.51 and 1.1 mg/g. Regarding the content of simple sugars, maltose was converted into glucose, and fructose was used as an electron acceptor or carbon source. Cellulose content decreased as a result of the solubilization of soluble fibers into insoluble fibers under enzymatic action, with percentages of 3.8 to 9.5%. All sourdough samples had a high content of minerals; the highest of which—Ca (246 mg/kg), Zn (36 mg/kg), Mn (46 mg/kg), and Fe (19 mg/kg)—were recorded in the einkorn sourdough. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Barley, oats, or spelt consumed as minimally processed whole grains provide several health benefits, especially when grown under organic field management conditions. Therefore, the effects of organic and conventional farming on the compositional traits (protein, fibre, fat, and ash) of barley, oat, and spelt grains and groats were compared using three winter barley varieties ('Anemone', 'BC Favorit', and 'Sandra'), two spring oat varieties ('Max' and 'Noni'), and three spelt varieties ('Ebners Rotkorn', 'Murska bela', and 'Ostro'). Groats were produced from harvested grains by a combination of threshing, winnowing, and brushing/polishing. Multitrait analysis showed significant differences between species, field management practices, and fractions, with clear compositional differences between organic and conventional spelt. Barley and oat groats had a higher thousand kernel weight (TKW) and β-glucan, but lower crude fibre, fat, and ash contents than the grains. The composition of the grains of the different species differed significantly for more traits (TKW, fibre, fat, ash, and β-glucan) than that of the groats (TKW and fat), while field management only affected the fibre content of the groats and the TKW, ash, and β-glucan contents of the grains. The TKW, protein, and fat contents of the different species differed significantly under both conventional and organic growing conditions, while the TKW and fibre contents of grains and groats differed under both systems. The caloric value of the final products of barley, oats, and spelt groats ranged from 334–358 kcal/100 g. This information will be useful for not only the processing industry, but also for breeders and farmers, and last, but not least, for consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five cultivars of bread wheat and spelt and three of emmer were grown in replicate randomised field trials on two sites for two years with 100 and 200 kg nitrogen fertiliser per hectare, reflecting low input and intensive farming systems. Wholemeal flours were analysed for components that are suggested to contribute to a healthy diet. The ranges of all components overlapped between the three cereal types, reflecting the effects of both genotype and environment. Nevertheless, statistically significant differences in the contents of some components were observed. Notably, emmer and spelt had higher contents of protein, iron, zinc, magnesium, choline and glycine betaine, but also of asparagine (the precursor of acrylamide) and raffinose. By contrast, bread wheat had higher contents of the two major types of fibre, arabinoxylan (AX) and β-glucan, than emmer and a higher AX content than spelt. Although such differences in composition may be suggested to result in effects on metabolic parameters and health when studied in isolation, the final effects will depend on the quantity consumed and the composition of the overall diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scope: Aqueous suspensions of spelt and wheat starch were irradiated with ultraviolet radiation for 5–50 h. The changes in the molecular structure of the starch induced by UV radiation were related to the photodegradation of starch chains and the subsequent recombination of the resulting polysaccharide radicals during prolonged irradiation. Methods and Results: Aqueous suspensions of spelt and wheat starch were irradiated with ultraviolet radiation for 5–50 h. The HPSEC-MALLS-RI method was used to measure the weight-average molecular weights of the starch polysaccharide chains and the distribution of the amylopectin side chains. FTIR spectroscopy of the modified samples and a study of the starch surface morphology were conducted using a scanning electron microscope. However, an increase in both the rate constant of the first stage of hydrolysis (k1) and its final level were demonstrated. The changes in the molecular structure of the starch induced by UV radiation were related to the photodegradation of starch chains and the subsequent recombination of the resulting polysaccharide radicals during prolonged irradiation. Conclusions: Changes in starch granules could influence some of their functional properties. Rearrangement in the polysaccharide chains could obtain novel starches with defined properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An ever-increased cultivation and market interest towards spelt (Triticum spelta) has been noticed indicating the need to develop analytical methods assessing the authenticity of this underutilized cereal commodity. In this study, an attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) method was developed and combined to a supervised chemometric tool, specifically orthogonal partial least square discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The validated model efficiently discriminated spelt (n = 22) over the widely used common wheat (Triticum aestivum) (n = 25) providing strong predictive power (goodness of fit, R2Y = 0.918 and model predictability, Q2 = 0.906). In addition, adulterated samples were used as an external validation set, and the developed OPLS-DA model identified the spelt-common wheat mixtures as a separate class highlighting its strong predictive power. In terms of the analysis, the method was rapid (less than a minute per run) and no sample preparation was needed. The major chemical composition of the tested samples was also revealed due to the structural information provided by the FTIR spectroscopy. All in all, the developed method is simple, cost-efficient and non-destructive indicating its high potential as a fast screening tool in cereal authenticity testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food fraud, even when not in the news, is ubiquitous and demands the development of innovative strategies to combat it. A new non-targeted method (NTM) for distinguishing spelt and wheat is described, which aids in food fraud detection and authenticity testing. A highly resolved fingerprint in the form of spectra is obtained for several cultivars of spelt and wheat using liquid chromatography coupled high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Convolutional neural network (CNN) models are built using a nested cross validation (NCV) approach by appropriately training them using a calibration set comprising duplicate measurements of eleven cultivars of wheat and spelt, each. The results reveal that the CNNs automatically learn patterns and representations to best discriminate tested samples into spelt or wheat. This is further investigated using an external validation set comprising artificially mixed spectra, samples for processed goods (spelt bread and flour), eleven untypical spelt, and six old wheat cultivars. These cultivars were not part of model building. We introduce a metric called the D score to quantitatively evaluate and compare the classification decisions. Our results demonstrate that NTMs based on NCV and CNNs trained using appropriately chosen spectral data can be reliable enough to be used on a wider range of cultivars and their mixes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATI) are known triggers for wheat-related disorders. The aims of our study were to determine (1) the inhibitory activity against different α-amylases, (2) the content of albumins and globulins (ALGL) and total ATI and (3) to correlate these parameters in wholegrain flour of hexaploid, tetraploid and diploid wheat species.The amount of ATI within the ALGL fraction varied from 0.8% in einkorn to 20% in spelt. ATI contents measured with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) revealed similar contents (1.2–4.2 mg/g) compared to the results determined by LC-MS/MS (0.2–5.2 mg/g) for all wheat species except einkorn. No correlation was found between ALGL content and inhibitory activity. In general, hexaploid cultivars of spelt and common wheat had the highest inhibitory activities, showing values between 897 and 3564 AIU/g against human salivary α-amylase. Tetraploid wheat species durum and emmer had lower activities (170–1461 AIU/g), although a few emmer cultivars showed similar activities at one location. In einkorn, no inhibitory activity was found. No correlation was observed between the ATI content and the inhibitory activity against the used α-amylases, highlighting that it is very important to look at the parameters separately.

The aims of this study were to evaluate and compare the radical scavenging activities (DPPH), phenolic concentrations and concentrations of selected phenolic acids (PAs) of spelt cultivars and breeding lines with common wheat in a three-year controlled field experiment under conditions of organic farming. No significant variations were observed in the total and free DPPH of Altgold, Ebners Rotkorn, Ostro and PN-1-36 with common wheat. The total DPPH ranged from 52.13% to the lowest value of 44.01% in Franckenkorn. Total, free and bound phenolic concentrations were the highest for common wheat (1902.55 µg FAE g−1 DM of total), while all spelt cultivars achieved significantly lower values (from 1434.94 µg FAE g−1 DM in Franckenkorn to 1650.22 µg FAE g−1 DM in Ebners Rotkorn). Bound phenolic compounds represented 86.3% of the total ones. An extremely dry and warm ripening period had a negative impact on the synthesis of phenolic compounds. The highest concentration of total PAs was observed in spelt Ebners Rotkorn (681.75 µg g−1 DM) and the lowest in common wheat (396.05 µg g−1 DM). The total share of free and bound PAs was 5.7% and 74.8%, respectively. The extremely dry and very warm grain filling period had a more evident negative impact on the concentration of free PAs compared to bound forms. The dominant free PA was ferulic (70.48%), followed by syringic (9.30%), p-HBA (5.59%), sinapic acid (5.40%), salicylic (4.18%), p-coumaric acid (3.22%) and caffeic acid (1.93%). Spelt cultivar Ebners Rotkorn was distinguished by the highest concentration of free and bound forms of PAs.

An increase in the production and consumption of spelt products can be associated with positive effects on human health, which are attributed to bioactive compounds present in the grain. The basic success of spelt wheat in organic farming might be explained by the fact that spelt wheat belongs to the group of hulled wheat where the presence of a husk protects the seed from abiotic and biotic stress factors, thus demanding less chemical protection. The goal of this study was to investigate the variations in the bioactive compound (alkylresorcinol, arabinoxylan, β-glucan), protein, starch and fructan content of bread and spelt wheat under different farming systems (conventional and organic). The results showed higher protein and alkylresorcinol but lower fructan content in spelt wheat. Organic spelt had significantly higher starch, fiber and alkylresorcinol content but lower β-glucan and protein content than conventionally grown spelt. The spelt variety 'Oberkulmer-Rotkorn' was characterized by the highest values for the majority of analyzed traits under both farming systems. Overall, the environmental conditions (Hungary and Serbia), farming systems (conventional and organic) and wheat species (bread and spelt) contributed to the variations of the compositional traits in different manners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this three-year field experiment was to determine how simplified (reduced) pre-planting tillage and different weed control methods impact the yield and selected quality parameters of spelt grain (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.). Conventional tillage and three variants of reduced tillage (RT) were tested. The second experimental variable (weed control) had three variants: mechanical weed control (M), combined mechanical + chemical treatment at full herbicide rate (MC 100%), and combined mechanical + chemical treatment at 25%-reduced herbicide rate (MC 75%). The mechanical method consisted of harrowing the wheat crop in the fall and spring. The results showed that the wheat yields obtained under reduced pre-planting tillage were comparable to those under conventional tillage. However, the grain quality parameters proved to be worse under the reduced tillage regimes. Herbicide applications, both at full and reduced rates, significantly improved grain quality parameters and yields compared with mechanical-only weed control. In particular, the herbicide-treated crops boasted higher values of thousand-kernel weight and grain weight per ear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Triticum spelta L. (family Poaceae) is an ancient grain, which had been used for nutrition in the past but was eventually substituted, together with other related grains, for bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The main reasons for its substitution are higher yield and economic gain in favor of bread wheat. With the belief that the extract of young spelt grass contains a sufficient amount of key nutrients, which contribute to beneficial effects on human health, research was conducted on 27 samples of young spelt grass extracts. For each sample extracted from young spelt grass cultivated under different conditions (irrigation, lighting, harvest), its nutritional composition, the content of biologically active substances and antioxidant activities were determined, with a comparison of the obtained results. Results: In this two‐year study several nutrients, the content of major and trace minerals, antioxidant activity and pigment, and polyphenolic and flavonoid contents were analyzed and how the different growth factors influence them. Young spelt grass extract has a relatively high amount of functional ingredients, such as potassium, phosphorus, manganese, chromium, polyphenols and flavonoids. Chlorophyll a and b and pheophytin were the main pigments in the young spelt grass extract. All of these constituents exhibit antioxidant activity, which is important for a healthy lifestyle and protection against diseases. Conclusion: This extract is a rich source of some major (potassium and phosphorus) and trace (manganese and chromium) elements, pigments, polyphenols and flavonoids. The antioxidant potential of the young spelt grass extract was positively correlated with their phenolic and flavonoid content. Accordingly, this composition of biologically active substances offers various ways of using this extract in the field of nutrition‐like dietary supplements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Native communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) constitute a natural biofertilization, biocontrol, and bioprotection factor for most agricultural crops, including cereals. The present study investigated the native AMF population in cultivated spelt, i.e., a cereal that has not been analyzed in this respect to date. In particular, the aim of the study was to determine the number of spores and the degree of AMF root colonization in two spelt cultivars (Franckenkorn and Badengold) from a 3-year monoculture grown in two different cultivation systems: conventional tillage and no-tillage systems. The study showed considerable accumulation of AMF spores in the soil (on average 1325 in 100 g of air-dry soil), with a wide range of their numbers, and not a very high degree of endomycorrhizal colonization (on average from 3.0% to 31%). The intensity of AMF growth in the subsequent cultivation years gradually increased and depended on the cultivation system as well as the growth stage and cultivar of the spelt. It was found that both analyzed AMF growth indices in the no-tillage system were positively correlated with each other. Moreover, their values were higher in the no-tillage system than in the conventional system, with statistical significance only for the number of spores. This was mainly observed in the variant with the Franckenkorn cultivar. The effect of the growing season was evident in both cultivation systems and spelt cultivars. It was reflected by intensification of sporulation and mycorrhization of spelt roots by AMF in summer (maturation stage) compared with the spring period (flowering stage). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta L.) is an underexploited hexaploid wheat species that has become an increasingly fashionable raw material of bakery products in the last decades, partly because of its ability to grow under organic agricultural conditions and partly because of the growing number of people following the trend of having a healthy diet. However, due to its difficult threshing, most research on spelt seed is based on a very limited number of genotypes. Therefore, we determined the physical, compositional, and breadmaking quality traits of 90 spelt genotypes in order to highlight the variation of these properties and to identify possible genetic resources for spelt improvement. The thousand kernel weight of the spelt genotypes ranged between 23.2 and 49.7 g, the protein content between 12.1% and 22.2%, the gluten index between 0.7 and 98.8, the dough stability between 0.0 and 19.6 min, and the starch damage between 6.3 and 19.4 UCD value. The average values showed that spelt has higher protein and gluten contents but weaker dough strength and stability than common bread wheat. The starch pasting temperature was also higher in spelt, but the starch damage was lower, resulting in lower water absorption. Some genebank accessions (MVGB142, 145, 353, and 525) and internationally available cultivars (Bohemia, Bodensonne, Black-Bearded, and White-Beardless) were identified as good genetic resources for improving the breadmaking-quality traits of spelt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals with suspected non-celiac wheat sensitivity (NCWS) often report better tolerance of spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) compared to wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. aestivum) bakery products. This experience has neither been validated nor explained on a molecular level. Therefore, we performed blinded wheat and spelt bread challenge in this patient group. Twenty-four adults with a history of NCWS but suspected spelt tolerance were challenged in a single-blinded crossover design over six weeks with six different study breads each at 300 g per day for 4 days followed by a washout phase of 3 days. Study breads comprised spelt and wheat breads made either after a traditional (T) or a current (C) recipe, resulting in four bread types plus a gluten-free bread with 1.5% added oligosaccharides (+FODMAP) and a gluten-free bread with 5% added wheat gluten (+Gluten). The main outcome parameter was the Irritable Bowel Syndrome—Severity Scoring System, which was higher than self-estimated by the participants after spelt bread consumption (p = 0.002 for T; p = 0.028 for C) and lower for wheat bread (p = 0.052 for T; p = 0.007 for C), resulting in no difference between wheat and spelt bread tolerance. The +FODMAP bread was better tolerated than both T breads (p = 0.003 for spelt; p = 0.068 for wheat) and equally well tolerated as both C breads and +Gluten breads after normalization to the washout scores. Neither signs of inflammation nor markers for intestinal barrier integrity were influenced. Our data do not confirm, on an objective basis, the differences in expected symptoms resulting from wheat and spelt products, suggesting a strong nocebo effect for wheat and a placebo effect for spelt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigates rheological properties of dough and baking process made from flour obtained by milling grains from ancient varieties of wheat (einkorn, emmer and spelt), compared to common wheat flour dough (Arkadia variety). The findings show that einkorn flour dough and emmer flour dough present poor tolerance to mechanical processing and prolonged fermentation. These types of dough should be mixed through relatively short, and fermentation time should not exceed 80 minutes for einkorn dough and 45 minutes in the case of emmer dough. In the case of spelt flour dough, the optimum duration of mechanical processing and fermentation amounted to 10 minutes and 60 minutes, respectively. In terms of technological and baking parameters, spelt flour was most similar to the flour obtained by milling conventional wheat, and the superiority of the former was in fact identified in the case of selected factors. A one-stage method was used in the baking process and the bread was then subjected to organoleptic and physicochemical assessments and to texture profile analysis (TPA). Measurements were also performed to determine the indicators reflecting the quality of the baking processes, including dough yield, baking loss and bread yield. The physical parameters of the bread produced were significantly related to the wheat variety. The loaves made from einkorn and spelt flour were of good quality, comparable to the bread made from the conventional wheat, while their baking quality indicators were satisfying. Bread dough made from emmer flour did not meet the required parameters mainly related to the organoleptic assessment and selected physical properties of the bread crumb. However, the one-stage production method should not be applied to doughs made from emmer flour. Given the specific characteristics of the breads produced from the ancient wheat varieties, including their pleasant taste and aroma, as well as attractive colour in the case of einkorn bread, these baked products may be an interesting addition to the assortment of breads on offer from bakeries, restaurants and agritourist farms.

Relationship of nitrogen (N) supply to nitrogen remobilization and leaf and grain P, K, and N status of wheat lacks clarity. The present pot experiment was conducted to evaluate nitrogen remobilization and leaf and grain P, K, and N status of ancient wheats of different ploidy levels in response to nitrogen. The experiment was carried out in Fall 2017-Spring 2018 at the Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran. The experiment was designed as a 3-replicate factorial completely random design with N fertilization treatment (at four levels of 0, 18.66, 37.33, and 56 mg N kg-1 soil) and genotype (consisting of 12 genotypes) as experimental factors. Nitrogen remobilization of the ancient and hulled wheats were increased when exposed to the low and medium N supplies. However, the Nitrogen remobilization of the standard durum and bread wheats were increased with increases in the N supply. Leaf and grain P, leaf N, and grain K concentrations responded positively to the N supply and ancient and hulled wheats equaled or exceeded those of the improved wheats particularly when grown in the absence of high N supplies. The presented data indicates that in conditions of nitrogen deficiency, the ancient wheats outperform improved wheats in terms of absorption and utilization of macronutrients.

The study presents assessment of commodity characteristics of grains from ancient varieties of wheat (einkorn, emmer and spelt) in comparison to grains of the conventional wheat cultivar Arkadia. The findings related to the grain of einkorn and emmer were very similar, and far worse than those related to spelt grain; the latter were found with better ratings, sometimes even in comparison to the conventional wheat grain (e.g. the highest mass-weight density). Similar relationships were observed between the flours produced by milling the grains. Analysis of the indirect baking quality indicators showed that flours from einkorn and emmer can effectively be used for baking purposes, however they present low technological value. The flour from emmer wheat was found to be the poorest, which was confirmed e.g. by the low gluten number, gluten index, Zeleny’s index, and high gluten spreadability. Spelt flour was found to present moderate technological value. Based on the results it can be concluded that by using adequate modification in the process of dough kneading and fermentation it will be possible to produce high quality baked goods from ancient wheat grains.

Abstract Background Threshability, rachis fragility and spike shape are critical traits for the domestication and evolution of wheat, determining the crop yield and efficiency of the harvest. Spelt factor gene Q controls a wide range of domestication-related traits in polyploid wheats, including those mentioned above. The main goal of the present study was to characterise the Q gene for uninvestigated accessions of wheats, including four endemics, and Aegilops accessions, and to analyze the species evolution based on differences in Q gene sequences. Results We have studied the spike morphology for 15 accessions of wheat species, including four endemics, namely Triticum macha, T. tibetanum, T. aestivum ssp. petropavlovskyi and T. spelta ssp. yunnanense, and 24 Aegilops accessions, which are donors of B and D genomes for polyploid wheat. The Q-5A, q-5D and q-5S genes were investigated, and a novel allele of the Q-5A gene was found in accessions of T. tibetanum (KU510 and KU515). This allele was similar to the Q allele of T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring but had an insertion 161 bp in length within exon 5. This insertion led to a frameshift and premature stop codon formation. Thus, the T. tibetanum have spelt spikes, which is probably determined by the gene Tg, rather than Q. We determined the variability within the q-5D genes among hexaploid wheat and their D genome donor Aegilops tauschii. Moreover, we studied the accessions C21–5129, KU-2074, and K-1100 of Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata, which could be involved in the origin of hexaploid wheats. Conclusions The variability and phylogenetic relationships of the Q gene sequences studied allowed us to clarify the relationships between species of the genus Triticum and to predict the donor of the D genome among the Ae. tauschii accessions. Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata accessions C21–5129, KU-2074 and K-1100 are the most interesting among the analysed accessions, since their partial sequence of q-5D is identical to the q-5D of T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring. This result indicates that the donor is Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata but not Ae. tauschii ssp. tauschii. Our analysis allowed us to clarify the phylogenetic relationships in the genus Triticum.